{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,11]],"date-time":"2026-07-11T06:31:15Z","timestamp":1783751475621,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648512000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"U.S. Office of Naval Research","award":["N00014-19-1-2556"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N00014-19-1-2556"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The spread of ideas is a fundamental concern of today\u2019s news ecology. Understanding the dynamics of the spread of information and its co-option by interested parties is of critical importance. Research on this topic has shown that individuals tend to cluster in echo-chambers and are driven by confirmation bias. In this paper, we leverage the active inference framework to provide an in silico model of confirmation bias and its effect on echo-chamber formation. We build a model based on active inference, where agents tend to sample information in order to justify their own view of reality, which eventually leads to them to have a high degree of certainty about their own beliefs. We show that, once agents have reached a certain level of certainty about their beliefs, it becomes very difficult to get them to change their views. This system of self-confirming beliefs is upheld and reinforced by the evolving relationship between an agent\u2019s beliefs and observations, which over time will continue to provide evidence for their ingrained ideas about the world. The epistemic communities that are consolidated by these shared beliefs, in turn, tend to produce perceptions of reality that reinforce those shared beliefs. We provide an active inference account of this community formation mechanism. We postulate that agents are driven by the epistemic value that they obtain from sampling or observing the behaviours of other agents. Inspired by digital social networks like Twitter, we build a generative model in which agents generate observable social claims or posts (e.g., \u2018tweets\u2019) while reading the socially observable claims of other agents that lend support to one of two mutually exclusive abstract topics. Agents can choose which other agent they pay attention to at each timestep, and crucially who they attend to and what they choose to read influences their beliefs about the world. Agents also assess their local network\u2019s perspective, influencing which kinds of posts they expect to see other agents making. The model was built and simulated using the freely available Python package pymdp. The proposed active inference model can reproduce the formation of echo-chambers over social networks, and gives us insight into the cognitive processes that lead to this phenomenon.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e24040476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T21:44:52Z","timestamp":1648590292000},"page":"476","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Epistemic Communities under Active Inference"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Mahault","family":"Albarracin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cognitive Computing, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec a Montreal, Montreal, QC H2K 4M1, Canada"},{"name":"VERSES Labs, Los Angeles, CA 90016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daphne","family":"Demekas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London SW7 5NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maxwell J. D.","family":"Ramstead","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VERSES Labs, Los Angeles, CA 90016, USA"},{"name":"Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London WC1N 3AR, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Conor","family":"Heins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VERSES Labs, Los Angeles, CA 90016, USA"},{"name":"Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, 78315 Radolfzell am Bodensee, Germany"},{"name":"Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2015.02.001","article-title":"Culture and social behavior","volume":"3","author":"Henrich","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"138","article-title":"Humans, habitats","volume":"138","author":"Heerwagen","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biophilia Hypothesis"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00417","article-title":"A world unto itself: Human communication as active inference","volume":"11","author":"Vasil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.109.1.75","article-title":"Models of ecological rationality: The recognition heuristic","volume":"109","author":"Goldstein","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.2307\/2669334","article-title":"Advantages and disadvantages of cognitive heuristics in political decision making","volume":"45","author":"Lau","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Political Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Oswald, M.E., and Grosjean, S. (2004). Confirmation bias. Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Psychology Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donsbach, W. (2009). Cognitive dissonance theory\u2014A roller coaster career: How communication research adapted the theory of cognitive dissonance. Media Choice, Routledge.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781405186407.wbiecc044"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1177\/0093650217719596","article-title":"Confirmation bias, ingroup bias, and negativity bias in selective exposure to political information","volume":"47","author":"Mothes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Commun. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167205276118","article-title":"The influence of mood on the search for supporting versus conflicting information: Dissonance reduction as a means of mood regulation?","volume":"32","author":"Jonas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5907.2006.00214.x","article-title":"Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs","volume":"50","author":"Taber","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Political Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cookson, J.A., Engelberg, J., and Mullins, W. (2022, February 14). Echo chambers. Cookson, J. Anthony and Engelberg, Joseph and Mullins, William, Echo Chambers. Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=3603107.","DOI":"10.1093\/rfs\/hhac058"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/13546780600780796","article-title":"Natural myside bias is independent of cognitive ability","volume":"13","author":"Stanovich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Think. Reason."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallinson, D.J., and Hatemi, P.K. (2018). The effects of information and social conformity on opinion change. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0196600"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pryor, C., Perfors, A., and Howe, P.D. (2019). Conformity to the descriptive norms of people with opposing political or social beliefs. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219464"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00679","article-title":"Regimes of expectations: An active inference model of social conformity and human decision making","volume":"10","author":"Constant","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Kameda, T., and Tindale, R.S. (2006). Groups as adaptive devices: Human docility and group aggregation mechanisms in evolutionary context. Evol. Soc. Psychol., 317\u2013341."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.92.2.191","article-title":"Epistemic motives and cultural conformity: Need for closure, culture, and context as determinants of conflict judgments","volume":"92","author":"Fu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Personal. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015","article-title":"Social influence: Compliance and conformity","volume":"55","author":"Cialdini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e90","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X19001213","article-title":"Thinking through other minds: A variational approach to cognition and culture","volume":"43","author":"Constant","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"153","article-title":"Accessing Social Capital through Conformity: Investigating Network Cultures","volume":"20","author":"Ladegard","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Organ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1170008","article-title":"Pains and pleasures of social life","volume":"323","author":"Lieberman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Pharo, H.H. (2012). The Behavioural and Psychological Effects of Ostracism in Adolescence and Emerging-Adulthood. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Otago]."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Tang, H.H.Y. (2011). The eye of the ostracised: Investigating changes in attention and affect following and during single-and multiple-episodes of ostracism and inclusion. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of New South Wales]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellickson, R. (1991). Order without Law Cambridge, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674036437"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2012.10.004","article-title":"A normative explanation of antisocial punishment","volume":"42","author":"Irwin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/02635143.2010.539973","article-title":"Theory-led confirmation bias and experimental persona","volume":"29","author":"Allen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res. Sci. Technol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2017.06.009","article-title":"Brain and social networks: Fundamental building blocks of human experience","volume":"21","author":"Falk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.3.497","article-title":"The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation","volume":"117","author":"Baumeister","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-122216-011821","article-title":"Persuasion, influence, and value: Perspectives from communication and social neuroscience","volume":"69","author":"Falk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797617695073","article-title":"The value of sharing information: A neural account of information transmission","volume":"28","author":"Baek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2881","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1615259114","article-title":"A neural model of valuation and information virality","volume":"114","author":"Scholz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026139","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.65.026139","article-title":"Synchronization on small-world networks","volume":"65","author":"Hong","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2837","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2014.2313531","article-title":"Cooperative synchronization in wireless networks","volume":"62","author":"Etzlinger","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1007\/s00422-004-0471-9","article-title":"Global and local synchrony of coupled neurons in small-world networks","volume":"90","author":"Masuda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsu168","article-title":"Engaged listeners: Shared neural processing of powerful political speeches","volume":"10","author":"Honey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"66","article-title":"The speech community","volume":"1","author":"Gumperz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Linguist. Anthropol. A Read."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.51.1.539","article-title":"Attitude change: Persuasion and social influence","volume":"51","author":"Wood","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bodrunova, S.S., Blekanov, I.S., and Kukarkin, M. (2018). Multi-dimensional echo chambers: Language and sentiment structure of Twitter discussions on the Charlie Hebdo Case. International Conference on Human\u2014Computer Interaction, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-92270-6_56"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1609\/icwsm.v11i1.14918","article-title":"A long-term analysis of polarization on Twitter","volume":"11","author":"Garimella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Aaai Conf. Web Soc. Media"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Dunlop, C.A. (2012). Epistemic Communities, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cinelli, M., Morales, G.D.F., Galeazzi, A., Quattrociocchi, W., and Starnini, M. (2020). Echo chambers on social media: A comparative analysis. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2023301118"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garimella, K., De Francisci Morales, G., Gionis, A., and Mathioudakis, M. (2018, January 23\u201327). Political discourse on social media: Echo chambers, gatekeepers, and the price of bipartisanship. Proceedings of the 2018 World Wide Web Conference, Lyon, France.","DOI":"10.1145\/3178876.3186139"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Duseja, N., and Jhamtani, H. A sociolinguistic study of online echo chambers on twitter. Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Natural Language Processing and Computational Social Science."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kozitsin, I.V., and Chkhartishvili, A.G. (2020, January 28\u201330). Users\u2019 Activity in Online Social Networks and the Formation of Echo Chambers. Proceedings of the 2020 13th International \u201cConference Management of Large-Scale System Development\u201d (MLSD), Moscow, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/MLSD49919.2020.9247720"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31834","article-title":"Emergence of metapopulations and echo chambers in mobile agents","volume":"6","author":"Starnini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1108\/INTR-11-2019-0491","article-title":"Viral misinformation and echo chambers: The diffusion of rumors about genetically modified organisms on social media","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"048301","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.124.048301","article-title":"Modeling echo chambers and polarization dynamics in social networks","volume":"124","author":"Baumann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1017\/epi.2018.32","article-title":"Echo chambers and epistemic bubbles","volume":"17","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Episteme"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1080\/02691728.2020.1839590","article-title":"Echo chambers, ignorance and domination","volume":"35","author":"Santos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc. Epistemol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elzinga, B. (2020). Echo Chambers and Audio Signal Processing. Episteme, 1\u201321.","DOI":"10.1017\/epi.2020.33"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2803","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-018-1692-0","article-title":"Cognitive islands and runaway echo chambers: Problems for epistemic dependence on experts","volume":"197","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1080\/09672559.2020.1782562","article-title":"Vulnerability in social epistemic networks","volume":"28","author":"Sullivan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Philos. Stud."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000097","article-title":"Bayesian approaches to autism: Towards volatility, action, and behavior","volume":"143","author":"Palmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1162\/REST_a_00300","article-title":"Stock market volatility and macroeconomic fundamentals","volume":"95","author":"Engle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Econ. Stat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(03)00186-0","article-title":"Family psychoeducation: An adjunctive intervention for children with bipolar disorder","volume":"53","author":"Fristad","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00302","article-title":"An aberrant precision account of autism","volume":"8","author":"Lawson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1080\/09581596.2020.1797997","article-title":"Science, society, and policy in the face of uncertainty: Reflections on the debate around face coverings for the public during COVID-19","volume":"30","author":"Martin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desforges, M., Gurdasani, D., Hamdy, A., and Leonardi, A.J. (2021). Uncertainty around the Long-Term Implications of COVID-19. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10101267"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"3","article-title":"When viruses and misinformation spread: How young Singaporeans navigated uncertainty in the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak","volume":"24","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Media Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000710","article-title":"Coping and tolerance of uncertainty: Predictors and mediators of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"76","author":"Rettie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, S., Zhang, H., Qi, J., Fang, B., and Xu, T. (2021). Perceiving Social-Emotional Volatility and Triggered Causes of COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18094591"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Berger, J.G., and Johnston, K. (2020). Simple Habits for Complex Times, Stanford University Press."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.201","article-title":"Which is the driver, the obsessions or the compulsions, in OCD?","volume":"40","author":"Gillan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1177\/15598276211008144","article-title":"Can Approaching Anxiety Like a Habit Lead to Novel Treatments?","volume":"15","author":"Brewer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Lifestyle Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Misztal, B.A. (2019). Trust in Habit: A Way of Coping in Unsettled Times. Trust in Contemporary Society, Brill.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004390430_005"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12304-021-09432-0","article-title":"Active Inference and Abduction","volume":"14","author":"Pietarinen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosemiotics"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.cje.a013692","article-title":"The ubiquity of habits and rules","volume":"21","author":"Hodgson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Camb. J. Econ."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Dynes, R. (2006). Social capital: Dealing with community emergencies. Homel. Secur. Aff., 2."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardner, B., and Lally, P. (2018). Modelling habit formation and its determinants. Psychol. Habit, 207\u2013229.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97529-0_12"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7191","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0979-09.2009","article-title":"Stress prompts habit behavior in humans","volume":"29","author":"Schwabe","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-122414-033417","article-title":"Psychology of habit","volume":"67","author":"Wood","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.06.022","article-title":"Active inference and learning","volume":"68","author":"Friston","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dezfouli, A., and Balleine, B.W. (2013). Actions, action sequences and habits: Evidence that goal-directed and habitual action control are hierarchically organized. PLoS Comput. Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003364"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00092","article-title":"The mixed instrumental controller: Using value of information to combine habitual choice and mental simulation","volume":"4","author":"Pezzulo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2015.09.001","article-title":"Active inference, homeostatic regulation and adaptive behavioural control","volume":"134","author":"Pezzulo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.11.028","article-title":"Neural computations underlying arbitration between model-based and model-free learning","volume":"81","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.674","article-title":"How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world","volume":"40","author":"Lally","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Story, G.W., Smith, R., Moutoussis, M., Berwian, I.M., Nolte, T., Bilek, E., Dolan, R.J. (2022, March 23). Story et al. 2021 A Social Inference Model of Idealization and Devaluation. Available online: https:\/\/psyarxiv.com\/yvu2b\/download?format=pdf.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/yvu2b"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaufmann, R., Gupta, P., and Taylor, J. (2021). An active inference model of collective intelligence. Entropy, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/e23070830"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2020.00061","article-title":"Investigation of the sense of agency in social cognition, based on frameworks of predictive coding and active inference: A simulation study on multimodal imitative interaction","volume":"14","author":"Ohata","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurorobot."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"55","article-title":"Narrative as active inference","volume":"1","author":"Bouizegarene","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psyarxiv"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/10407413.2021.1965480","article-title":"Communication as socially extended active inference: An ecological approach to communicative behavior","volume":"33","author":"Tison","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Kahl, S., and Kopp, S. (2022, March 23). How Active Inference can Facilitate Belief Coordination in Multi-Agent Interaction. EuroCogSci 2019, Bochum. Available online: https:\/\/pub.uni-bielefeld.de\/record\/2935664."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170376","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2017.0376","article-title":"Uncertainty, epistemics and active inference","volume":"14","author":"Parr","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2020.509354","article-title":"Deep active inference and scene construction","volume":"3","author":"Heins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1080\/17588928.2015.1020053","article-title":"Active inference and epistemic value","volume":"6","author":"Friston","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, Y. (2019). Recent Advances in the Modelling and Analysis of Opinion Dynamics on Influence Networks, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11633-019-1169-8"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andina-Diaz, M.J.P. (2016). Bounded Confidence under Preferential Flip: A Coupled Dynamics of Structural Balance and Opinions. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0164323"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2586","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2009.2031211","article-title":"On Krause\u2019s Multi-Agent Consensus Model With State-Dependent Connectivity","volume":"54","author":"Hendrickx","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"1","article-title":"Opinion dynamics and bounded confidence models, analysis, and simulation","volume":"5","author":"Hegselmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Artif. Soc. Soc. Simul."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01090","article-title":"Cultural affordances: Scaffolding local worlds through shared intentionality and regimes of attention","volume":"7","author":"Ramstead","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2004.10.007","article-title":"The Bayesian brain: The role of uncertainty in neural coding and computation","volume":"27","author":"Knill","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.10.004","article-title":"The history of the future of the Bayesian brain","volume":"62","author":"Friston","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25558-7","article-title":"Large networks of rational agents form persistent echo chambers","volume":"8","author":"Madsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s13235-010-0004-1","article-title":"Opinion dynamics and learning in social networks","volume":"1","author":"Acemoglu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dyn. Games Appl."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8261392","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8261392","article-title":"Opinion dynamics with Bayesian learning","volume":"2020","author":"Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friston, K.J., Daunizeau, J., and Kiebel, S.J. (2009). Reinforcement learning or active inference?. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006421"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2012.08.006","article-title":"Planning as inference","volume":"16","author":"Botvinick","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1974.10480137","article-title":"Reaching a consensus","volume":"69","author":"DeGroot","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1214\/aop\/1176996306","article-title":"Ergodic theorems for weakly interacting infinite systems and the voter model","volume":"3","author":"Holley","year":"1975","journal-title":"Ann. Probab."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"11","article-title":"Mixing beliefs among interacting agents","volume":"3","author":"Deffuant","year":"2001","journal-title":"Adv. Complex Syst."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pais, D., Hogan, P.M., Schlegel, T., Franks, N.R., Leonard, N.E., and Marshall, J.A. (2013). A mechanism for value-sensitive decision-making. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0073216"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032304","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.97.032304","article-title":"Collective conflict resolution in groups on the move","volume":"97","author":"Pinkoviezky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Bizyaeva, A., Franci, A., and Leonard, N.E. (2020). A general model of opinion dynamics with tunable sensitivity. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3793","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2018.2805261","article-title":"Evolution of social power in social networks with dynamic topology","volume":"63","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aag2624","article-title":"Network science on belief system dynamics under logic constraints","volume":"354","author":"Friedkin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2270","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2016.2613905","article-title":"Novel multidimensional models of opinion dynamics in social networks","volume":"62","author":"Parsegov","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho\u0142yst, J.A., Kacperski, K., and Schweitzer, F. (2001). Social impact models of opinion dynamics. Annu. Rev. Comput. Phys. IX, 253\u2013273.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812811578_0005"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1","article-title":"Understanding complex social dynamics: A plea for cellular automata based modelling","volume":"1","author":"Hegselmann","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Artif. Soc. Soc. Simul."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Latan\u00e9, B., and Nowak, A. (1997). Self-organizing social systems: Necessary and sufficient conditions for the emergence of clustering, consolidation, and continuing diversity. Prog. Commun. Sci., 43\u201374."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weisbuch, G., Deffuant, G., Amblard, F., and Nadal, J.P. (2003). Interacting agents and continuous opinions dynamics. Heterogenous Agents, Interactions and Economic Performance, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-55651-7_14"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0262.00113","article-title":"Pathological outcomes of observational learning","volume":"68","author":"Smith","year":"2000","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E10387","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1811964115","article-title":"Collective decision making by rational individuals","volume":"115","author":"Mann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Costa, L., Friston, K., Heins, C., and Pavliotis, G.A. (2021). Bayesian mechanics for stationary processes. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.2021.0518"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1162\/NECO_a_00912","article-title":"Active inference: A process theory","volume":"29","author":"Friston","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neural Comput."},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"Sutton, R.S., and Barto, A.G. (2018). Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1992.4.3.415","article-title":"Bayesian interpolation","volume":"4","author":"MacKay","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neural Comput."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Beal, M.J. (2003). Variational Algorithms for Approximate Bayesian Inference, University of London."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friston, K.J., Wiese, W., and Hobson, J.A. (2020). Sentience and the origins of consciousness: From Cartesian duality to Markovian monism. Entropy, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22050516"},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"792","article-title":"Markov decision processes: Discrete stochastic dynamic programming","volume":"46","author":"Puterman","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Oper. Res. Soc."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-3702(98)00023-X","article-title":"Planning and acting in partially observable stochastic domains","volume":"101","author":"Kaelbling","year":"1998","journal-title":"Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/s00422-019-00805-w","article-title":"Generalised free energy and active inference","volume":"113","author":"Parr","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1162\/neco_a_01354","article-title":"Whence the expected free energy?","volume":"33","author":"Millidge","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neural Comput."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmp.2020.102447","article-title":"Active inference on discrete state-spaces: A synthesis","volume":"99","author":"Parr","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Math. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e41703","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.41703","article-title":"Computational mechanisms of curiosity and goal-directed exploration","volume":"8","author":"Schwartenbeck","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heins, C., Millidge, B., Demekas, D., Klein, B., Friston, K., Couzin, I., and Tschantz, A. (2022). pymdp: A Python library for active inference in discrete state spaces. arXiv.","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.04098"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erd\u00f6s, P., and R\u00e9nyi, A. (2011). On the evolution of random graphs. The Structure and Dynamics of Networks, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400841356.38"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau2706","article-title":"Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election","volume":"363","author":"Grinberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1017\/cem.2020.361","article-title":"The Twitter pandemic: The critical role of Twitter in the dissemination of medical information and misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"22","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"Cossard, A., Morales, G.D.F., Kalimeri, K., Mejova, Y., Paolotti, D., and Starnini, M. (2018, January 25\u201328). Falling into the echo chamber: The Italian vaccination debate on Twitter. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, Palo Alto, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tschantz, A., Seth, A.K., and Buckley, C.L. (2020). Learning action-oriented models through active inference. PLoS Comput. Biol., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1007805"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30039","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-018-6883-7","article-title":"An efficient networking protocol for internet of things to handle multimedia big data","volume":"78","author":"Almogren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1080\/026730303042000331808","article-title":"Gated communities: Sprawl and social segregation in Southern California","volume":"20","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hous. Stud."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.2307\/257905","article-title":"Boundary spanning roles and organization structure","volume":"2","author":"Aldrich","year":"1977","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-86806-x","article-title":"Topological clustering of regulatory genes confers pathogenic tolerance to cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) in cassava","volume":"11","author":"Jaemthaworn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.5465\/amj.2006.23478720","article-title":"Boundary spanners\u2019 identification, intergroup contact, and effective intergroup relations","volume":"49","author":"Richter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2021.05.071","article-title":"Fast hierarchical clustering of local density peaks via an association degree transfer method","volume":"455","author":"Guan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scico.2003.12.008","article-title":"Roles in networks","volume":"53","author":"Canright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sci. Comput. Program."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-018-1487-0","article-title":"The network structure of paranoia in the general population","volume":"53","author":"Bell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1007\/s42001-020-00084-7","article-title":"Social influence and unfollowing accelerate the emergence of echo chambers","volume":"4","author":"Sasahara","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Comput. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1007\/s10683-020-09680-w","article-title":"Optimal design of experiments to identify latent behavioral types","volume":"24","author":"Balietti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Econ."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2015.2494218","article-title":"Taking the human out of the loop: A review of Bayesian optimization","volume":"104","author":"Shahriari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2102157118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2102157118","article-title":"The geometry of decision-making in individuals and collectives","volume":"118","author":"Sridhar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albarracin, M., Constant, A., Friston, K.J., and Ramstead, M.J.D. (2021). A variational approach to scripts. Front. Psychol., 3035.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/67zy4"}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/24\/4\/476\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:45:52Z","timestamp":1760136352000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/24\/4\/476"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"references-count":144,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["e24040476"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e24040476","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1099-4300","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]}}}