{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T01:19:07Z","timestamp":1779153547334,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":201,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,9]],"date-time":"2022-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652054400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness","award":["FIS2016-77447-R MINECO\/AEI\/FEDER"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FIS2016-77447-R MINECO\/AEI\/FEDER"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness","award":["AGAUR FI-SDUR 2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AGAUR FI-SDUR 2020"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness","award":["IJC2018-036694-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IJC2018-036694-I"]}]},{"name":"Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)","award":["FIS2016-77447-R MINECO\/AEI\/FEDER"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FIS2016-77447-R MINECO\/AEI\/FEDER"]}]},{"name":"Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)","award":["AGAUR FI-SDUR 2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AGAUR FI-SDUR 2020"]}]},{"name":"Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)","award":["IJC2018-036694-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IJC2018-036694-I"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>When computers started to become a dominant part of technology around the 1950s, fundamental questions about reliable designs and robustness were of great relevance. Their development gave rise to the exploration of new questions, such as what made brains reliable (since neurons can die) and how computers could get inspiration from neural systems. In parallel, the first artificial neural networks came to life. Since then, the comparative view between brains and computers has been developed in new, sometimes unexpected directions. With the rise of deep learning and the development of connectomics, an evolutionary look at how both hardware and neural complexity have evolved or designed is required. In this paper, we argue that important similarities have resulted both from convergent evolution (the inevitable outcome of architectural constraints) and inspiration of hardware and software principles guided by toy pictures of neurobiology. Moreover, dissimilarities and gaps originate from the lack of major innovations that have paved the way to biological computing (including brains) that are completely absent within the artificial domain. As it occurs within synthetic biocomputation, we can also ask whether alternative minds can emerge from A.I. designs. Here, we take an evolutionary view of the problem and discuss the remarkable convergences between living and artificial designs and what are the pre-conditions to achieve artificial intelligence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e24050665","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,9]],"date-time":"2022-05-09T21:23:27Z","timestamp":1652131407000},"page":"665","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Evolution of Brains and Computers: The Roads Not Taken"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6974-1008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricard","family":"Sol\u00e9","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ICREA-Complex Systems Lab, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Dr Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institut de Biologia Evolutiva, CSIC-UPF, Pg Maritim de la Barceloneta 37, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Road, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0045-8145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds F.","family":"Seoane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda de Sistemas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnolog\u00eda (CSIC), C\/Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Grupo Interdisciplinar de Sistemas Complejos (GISC), 28049 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Levin, M., and Dennett, D.C. 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