{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T15:43:02Z","timestamp":1784389382848,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]],"date-time":"2023-01-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020","award":["779982"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["779982"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020","award":["TED2021-130174B-C32"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130174B-C32"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020","award":["IJC2020-044467-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IJC2020-044467-I"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","award":["779982"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["779982"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","award":["TED2021-130174B-C32"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130174B-C32"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","award":["IJC2020-044467-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IJC2020-044467-I"]}]},{"name":"Spanish MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033","award":["779982"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["779982"]}]},{"name":"Spanish MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033","award":["TED2021-130174B-C32"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TED2021-130174B-C32"]}]},{"name":"Spanish MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033","award":["IJC2020-044467-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IJC2020-044467-I"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Peripheral Electrical Stimulation (PES) of afferent pathways has received increased interest as a solution to reduce pathological tremors with minimal side effects. Closed-loop PES systems might present some advantages in reducing tremors, but further developments are required in order to reliably detect pathological tremors to accurately enable the stimulation only if a tremor is present. This study explores different machine learning (K-Nearest Neighbors, Random Forest and Support Vector Machines) and deep learning (Long Short-Term Memory neural networks) models in order to provide a binary (Tremor; No Tremor) classification of kinematic (angle displacement) and electromyography (EMG) signals recorded from patients diagnosed with essential tremors and healthy subjects. Three types of signal sequences without any feature extraction were used as inputs for the classifiers: kinematics (wrist flexion\u2013extension angle), raw EMG and EMG envelopes from wrist flexor and extensor muscles. All the models showed high classification scores (Tremor vs. No Tremor) for the different input data modalities, ranging from 0.8 to 0.99 for the f1 score. The LSTM models achieved 0.98 f1 scores for the classification of raw EMG signals, showing high potential to detect tremors without any processed features or preliminary information. These models may be explored in real-time closed-loop PES strategies to detect tremors and enable stimulation with minimal signal processing steps.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e25010114","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]],"date-time":"2023-01-05T05:29:48Z","timestamp":1672896588000},"page":"114","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Classification of Kinematic and Electromyographic Signals Associated with Pathological Tremor Using Machine and Deep Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Pascual-Valdunciel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"E.T.S. Ingenieros de Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Neural Rehabilitation Group, Cajal Institute, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 28002 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7656-9354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00edctor","family":"Lopo-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E.T.S. Ingenieros de Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto J.","family":"Beltr\u00e1n-Carrero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E.T.S. Ingenieros de Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2746-8677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Sendra-Arranz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E.T.S. Ingenieros de Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5076-5077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Mara\u00f1\u00f3n, 28007 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javier Ricardo","family":"P\u00e9rez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Mara\u00f1\u00f3n, 28007 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Grandas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Mara\u00f1\u00f3n, 28007 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dario","family":"Farina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 L.","family":"Pons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Legs & Walking AbilityLab, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL 60611, USA"},{"name":"Department of PM&R, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0228-6447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipe","family":"Oliveira Barroso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neural Rehabilitation Group, Cajal Institute, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 28002 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8926-5328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1lvaro","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E.T.S. 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