{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:41:05Z","timestamp":1760125265404,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004329","name":"Slovene Research Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["J2-4458","P2-0041","23-04622L"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J2-4458","P2-0041","23-04622L"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004329","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001824","name":"Czech Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["J2-4458","P2-0041","23-04622L"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J2-4458","P2-0041","23-04622L"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001824","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A new approach is proposed for lossless raster image compression employing interpolative coding. A new multifunction prediction scheme is presented first. Then, interpolative coding, which has not been applied frequently for image compression, is explained briefly. Its simplification is introduced in regard to the original approach. It is determined that the JPEG LS predictor reduces the information entropy slightly better than the multi-functional approach. Furthermore, the interpolative coding was moderately more efficient than the most frequently used arithmetic coding. Finally, our compression pipeline is compared against JPEG LS, JPEG 2000 in the lossless mode, and PNG using 24 standard grayscale benchmark images. JPEG LS turned out to be the most efficient, followed by JPEG 2000, while our approach using simplified interpolative coding was moderately better than PNG. The implementation of the proposed encoder is extremely simple and can be performed in less than 60 lines of programming code for the coder and 60 lines for the decoder, which is demonstrated in the given pseudocodes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e25030533","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T05:46:42Z","timestamp":1679291202000},"page":"533","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["FLoCIC: A Few Lines of Code for Raster Image Compression"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4372-5020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Borut","family":"\u017dalik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4468-0290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Damjan","family":"Strnad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6210-0889","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0160tefan","family":"Kohek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4556-2771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivana","family":"Kolingerov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of West Bohemia, Technick\u00e1 8, 306 14 Plze\u0148, Czech Republic"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1559-9776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrej","family":"Nerat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9517-1157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Niko","family":"Luka\u010d","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6529-4263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bogdan","family":"Lipu\u0161","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0382-8391","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mitja","family":"\u017dalik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0701-9201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Podgorelec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koro\u0161ka cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"379","article-title":"A Mathematical Theory of Communication","volume":"27","author":"Shannon","year":"1948","journal-title":"AT&T Tech. J."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Nelson, M., and Gailly, J.-L. (1991). The Data Compression Book, M&T Books. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moffat, A., and Turpin, A. (2002). Compression and Coding Algorithms, Kluwer Academic.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-0935-6"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cover, T.M., and Thomas, J.A. (2006). Elements of Information Theory, Wiley. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/047174882X"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salomon, D., and Motta, G. (2010). Handbook of Data Compression, Springer. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-903-9"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sayood, K. (2012). Introduction to Data Compression, Elsevier. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-415796-5.00001-6"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richardson, I.E.G. (2003). H.264 and MPEG-4 Video Compression: Video Coding for Next-Generation Multimedia, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470869615"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rao, K.R., and Yip, P. (1990). Discrete Cosine Transform, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-092534-9.50007-2"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"54","article-title":"Wavelet Transform Techniques for Image Compression\u2014An Evaluation","volume":"6","author":"Sridhar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Image Graph. Sig. Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Starosolski, R. (2020). Hybrid Adaptive Lossless Image Compression Based on Discrete Wavelet Transform. Entropy, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22070751"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122726","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3212145","article-title":"A Dual-Domain Image Encryption Algorithm Based on Hyperchaos and Dynamic Wavelet Decomposition","volume":"10","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1604","article-title":"Image compression by linear splines over adaptive triangulations","volume":"22","author":"Demaret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Signal Process"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/3477.979959","article-title":"Adaptive color reduction","volume":"32","author":"Papamarkos","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-019-08126-7","article-title":"An efficient lossy cartoon image compression method","volume":"79","author":"Jeromel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1117\/1.482591","article-title":"Near-lossless image compression techniques","volume":"7","author":"Ansari","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Electron. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M.A., and Hamada, M. (2019). Lossless Image Compression Techniques: A State-of-the-Art Survey. Symmetry, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym11101274"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1109\/83.855427","article-title":"The LOCO-I Lossless Image Compression Algorithm: Principles and Standardization into JPEG-LS","volume":"9","author":"Weinberger","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE T Image Process"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1109\/83.846242","article-title":"Context-based lossless interband compression-extending CALIC","volume":"9","author":"Xiaolin","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2020.03.073","article-title":"Can burrows-Wheeler transform be replaced in chain code compression?","volume":"525","author":"Mongus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2023, January 23). Overview of JPEG LS. Available online: https:\/\/jpeg.org\/jpegls\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1966.1053907","article-title":"Run\u2013length encodings","volume":"12","author":"Golomb","year":"1966","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.1984.1659158","article-title":"A Technique for High-Performance Data Compression","volume":"17","author":"Welch","year":"1984","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2023, January 23). PortableNetwork Graphics. Available online: http:\/\/www.libpng.org\/pub\/png\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"James, A. (1991). Image File Compression Made Easy, Academic Press. Graphics Gems, 2."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1977.1055714","article-title":"A universal algorithm for sequential data compression","volume":"23","author":"Ziv","year":"1977","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1109\/JRPROC.1952.273898","article-title":"A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy Codes","volume":"40","author":"Huffman","year":"1952","journal-title":"Proc. IRE"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taubman, D., and Marcellin, M.W. (2002). JPEG2000: Image Compression Fundamentals Standards and Practice, Kluwer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-0799-4"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Le Gall, D., and Tabatabai, A.J. (1988, January 11\u201314). Sub-band coding of digital images using symmetric short kernel filters and arithmetic coding techniques. Proceedings of the ICASSP-88: International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ko, H.-H. (2021). Enhanced Binary MQ Arithmetic Coder with Look-Up Table. Information, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/info12040143"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ulacha, G., and \u0141azoryszczak, M. (2023). Lossless Image Coding Using Non-MMSE Algorithms to Calculate Linear Prediction Coefficients. Entropy, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/e25010156"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1013002601898","article-title":"Binary interpolative coding for effective index compression","volume":"3","author":"Moffat","year":"2000","journal-title":"Inf. Retr."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"39","article-title":"Efficient chain code compression with interpolative coding","volume":"439","author":"Mongus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2019.05.001","article-title":"Chain code compression with modified interpolative coding","volume":"77","author":"Mongus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Howard, P.G., and Vitter, J. (April, January 30). Fast and efficient lossless image compression. Proceedings of the DC\u201993: Data Compression Conference, Snowbird, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Niemi, A., and Teuhola, J. (2015, January 2\u20135). Interpolative coding as an alternative to arithmetic coding in bi-level image compression. Proceedings of the SCC 2015\u201410th International ITG Conference on Systems, Communications and Coding, Hamburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3177","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2019.2924430","article-title":"Efficient representation of geometric tree models with level-of-detail using compressed 3D chain code","volume":"26","author":"Strnad","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2023, March 14). FLoCIC. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/mitzal\/FLoCIC."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2023, January 23). IrfanView. Available online: https:\/\/www.irfanview.com\/."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2023, January 23). ImageMagick. Available online: https:\/\/imagemagick.org\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Bodden, E., Clasen, M., and Kneis, J. (2007). Arithmetic Coding Revealed, McGill University. Sable Technical Report No. 2007-5."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2003.815173","article-title":"Context-Based Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding in the H.264\/AVC Video Compression Standard","volume":"13","author":"Marpe","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2023, January 23). Overview of JPEG XL. Available online: https:\/\/jpeg.org\/jpegxl\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2023, January 23). An Image Format for Web. Available online: https:\/\/developers.google.com\/speed\/webp\/."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2010.07.018","article-title":"An efficient raster font compression for embedded systems","volume":"43","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pattern Recogn."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"93","article-title":"Educational support for computational geometry course\u2014The Delaunay triangulation tester","volume":"25","author":"Novak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.10031","article-title":"TriMeDeC tool for preparing visual teaching materials based on triangular networks","volume":"10","author":"Krivograd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ."}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/25\/3\/533\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:59:17Z","timestamp":1760122757000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/25\/3\/533"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["e25030533"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e25030533","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1099-4300"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]}}}