{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T10:28:12Z","timestamp":1783160892927,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]],"date-time":"2023-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research on Digital Identity Trust System for Massive Heterogeneous Terminals in Road Traffic System","award":["2022YFB3104402"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFB3104402"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Blockchain technology affords data integrity protection and building trust mechanisms in transactions for distributed networks, and, therefore, is seen as a promising revolutionary information technology. At the same time, the ongoing breakthrough in quantum computation technology contributes toward large-scale quantum computers, which might attack classic cryptography, seriously threatening the classic cryptography security currently employed in the blockchain. As a better alternative, a quantum blockchain has high expectations of being immune to quantum computing attacks perpetrated by quantum adversaries. Although several works have been presented, the problems of impracticality and inefficiency in quantum blockchain systems remain prominent and need to be addressed. First, this paper develops a quantum-secure blockchain (QSB) scheme by introducing a consensus mechanism\u2014quantum proof of authority (QPoA) and an identity-based quantum signature (IQS)\u2014wherein QPoA is used for new block generation and IQS is used for transaction signing and verification. Second, QPoA is developed by adopting a quantum voting protocol to achieve secure and efficient decentralization for the blockchain system, and a quantum random number generator (QRNG) is deployed for randomized leader node election to protect the blockchain system from centralized attacks like distributed denial of service (DDoS). Compared to previous work, our scheme is more practical and efficient without sacrificing security, greatly contributing to better addressing the challenges in the quantum era. Extensive security analysis demonstrates that our scheme provides better protection against quantum computing attacks than classic blockchains. Overall, our scheme presents a feasible solution for blockchain systems against quantum computing attacks through a quantum strategy, contributing toward quantum-secured blockchain in the quantum era.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e25050811","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,18]],"date-time":"2023-05-18T07:35:50Z","timestamp":1684395350000},"page":"811","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["A Secure Scheme Based on a Hybrid of Classical-Quantum Communications Protocols for Managing Classical Blockchains"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Ang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Security Center, State Key Laboratory of Networking and Switching Technology, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"},{"name":"Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9761-3414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiu-Bo","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Security Center, State Key Laboratory of Networking and Switching Technology, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shengwei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuo","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengyang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0382-7085","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liwei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5349-6447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanshuo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Nakamoto, S. 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