{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:25:33Z","timestamp":1760149533066,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,22]],"date-time":"2023-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692662400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health","award":["N20\/12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N20\/12"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobehavioral disorder with known brain abnormalities but no biomarkers to support clinical diagnosis. Recently, EEG analysis methods such as functional connectivity have rekindled interest in using EEG for ADHD diagnosis. Most studies have focused on resting-state EEG, while connectivity during sleep and spindle activity has been underexplored. Here we present the results of a preliminary study exploring spindle-related connectivity as a possible biomarker for ADHD. We compared sensor-space connectivity parameters in eight children with ADHD and nine age\/sex-matched healthy controls during sleep, before, during, and after spindle activity in various frequency bands. All connectivity parameters were significantly different between the two groups in the delta and gamma bands, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in the gamma band distinguished ADHD from healthy subjects. Cluster coefficient and path length values in the sigma band were also significantly different between epochs, indicating different spindle-related brain activity in ADHD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e25091244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,22]],"date-time":"2023-08-22T00:46:22Z","timestamp":1692665182000},"page":"1244","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Sleep Spindle-Related EEG Connectivity in Children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: An Exploratory Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7235-4965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caterina","family":"Zanus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS \u201cBurlo Garofolo\u201d, 34137 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6156-1464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandar","family":"Miladinovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS \u201cBurlo Garofolo\u201d, 34137 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"given":"Federica","family":"De Dea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Life Science, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"given":"Aldo","family":"Skabar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS \u201cBurlo Garofolo\u201d, 34137 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Stecca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS \u201cBurlo Garofolo\u201d, 34137 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8307-4360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milo\u0161","family":"Aj\u010devi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"given":"Agostino","family":"Accardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Carrozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Maternal and Child Health\u2014IRCCS \u201cBurlo Garofolo\u201d, 34137 Trieste, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association Publishing. [3rd ed.]. DSM-III-R."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2012.690535","article-title":"Biomarkers for Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). A Consensus Report of the WFSBP Task Force on Biological Markers and the World Federation of ADHD","volume":"13","author":"Thome","year":"2012","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00330","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.330","article-title":"Integration of an EEG Biomarker with a Clinician\u2019s ADHD Evaluation","volume":"5","author":"Snyder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059419859164","article-title":"A New Method of Diagnosing Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Male Patients by Quantitative EEG Analysis","volume":"50","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059420962343","article-title":"Quantitative EEG in Childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disabilities","volume":"52","author":"Chiarenza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2019.07.004","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Quantitative EEG as a Possible Biomarker in Child Psychiatric Disorders","volume":"279","author":"McVoy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00525","article-title":"Classification and Prediction of Brain Disorders Using Functional Connectivity: Promising but Challenging","volume":"12","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww143","article-title":"Neural, Electrophysiological and Anatomical Basis of Brain-Network Variability and Its Characteristic Changes in Mental Disorders","volume":"139","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-014-0498-0","article-title":"Use of EEG to Diagnose ADHD","volume":"16","author":"Lenartowicz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-012-0131-z","article-title":"Clinical Utility of EEG in Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Research Update","volume":"9","author":"Loo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"2755","article-title":"Electroencephalography Signatures of Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: Clinical Utility","volume":"11","author":"Alba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059418817966","article-title":"Measuring Treatment Response in Pharmacological and Lifestyle Interventions Using Electroencephalography in ADHD: A Review","volume":"50","author":"Kirkland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0469-7","article-title":"Atypical Functional Connectivity in Adolescents and Adults with Persistent and Remitted ADHD during a Cognitive Control Task","volume":"9","author":"Michelini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.18869\/nirp.bcn.8.4.267","article-title":"Functional Brain Connectivity Differences between Different ADHD Presentations: Impaired Functional Segregation in ADHD-Combined Presentation but Not in ADHD-Inattentive Presentation","volume":"8","author":"Ghaderi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arpaia, P., Covino, A., Cristaldi, L., Frosolone, M., Gargiulo, L., Mancino, F., Mantile, F., and Moccaldi, N. (2022). A Systematic Review on Feature Extraction in Electroencephalography-Based Diagnostics and Therapy in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134934"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmadi, M., Kazemi, K., Kuc, K., Cybulska-Klosowicz, A., Helfroush, M.S., and Aarabi, A. (2021). Disrupted Functional Rich-Club Organization of the Brain Networks in Children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder, a Resting-State EEG Study. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11070938"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3390\/signals4010010","article-title":"Automatic Identification of Children with ADHD from EEG Brain Waves","volume":"4","author":"Alim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signals"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2019.03.005","article-title":"Oscillatory Neural Networks Underlying Resting-State, Attentional Control and Social Cognition Task Conditions in Children with ASD, ADHD and ASD+ADHD","volume":"117","author":"Shephard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2010.02.012","article-title":"Sleep and ADHD","volume":"11","author":"Konofal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1689","article-title":"The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events","volume":"53","author":"Berry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. Acad. Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2018.03.028","article-title":"Visually Detected Non\u2212rapid Eye Movement Stage 2 Sleep Spindle Density at Age Five Years Predicted Prosocial Behavior Positively and Hyperactivity Scores Negatively at Age Nine Years","volume":"48","author":"Mikoteit","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-014-0500-x","article-title":"The Interplay Between Sleep and Emotion Regulation: Conceptual Framework Empirical Evidence and Future Directions","volume":"16","author":"Gruber","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2016.07.027","article-title":"Neuroscience: A Sleep Rhythm with Multiple Facets","volume":"26","author":"Koo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2013.10.001","article-title":"Manipulating Sleep Spindles\u2014Expanding Views on Sleep, Memory, and Disease","volume":"36","author":"Astori","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53839-0.00009-0","article-title":"Neuronal Plasticity and Thalamocortical Sleep and Waking Oscillations","volume":"193","author":"Timofeev","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2010.12.003","article-title":"The Function of the Sleep Spindle: A Physiological Index of Intelligence and a Mechanism for Sleep-Dependent Memory Consolidation","volume":"35","author":"Fogel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.10.024","article-title":"Tapping the Brakes: Cellular and Synaptic Mechanisms That Regulate Thalamic Oscillations","volume":"92","author":"Fogerson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krishnan, G.P., Rosen, B.Q., Chen, J.Y., Muller, L., Sejnowski, T.J., Cash, S.S., Halgren, E., and Bazhenov, M. (2018). Thalamocortical and Intracortical Laminar Connectivity Determines Sleep Spindle Properties. PLoS Comput. Biol., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1006171"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn915","article-title":"The Cognitive Neuroscience of Sleep: Neuronal Systems, Consciousness and Learning","volume":"3","author":"Hobson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.12.017","article-title":"Cortical Development, Electroencephalogram Rhythms, and the Sleep\/Wake Cycle","volume":"77","author":"Cirelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.873692","article-title":"Assessing Cortical Functional Connectivity by Partial Directed Coherence: Simulations and Application to Real Data","volume":"53","author":"Astolfi","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20263","article-title":"Comparison of Different Cortical Connectivity Estimators for High-Resolution EEG Recordings","volume":"28","author":"Astolfi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140513","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/140513","article-title":"Measuring Connectivity in Linear Multivariate Processes: Definitions, Interpretation, and Practical Analysis","volume":"2012","author":"Faes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Math. Methods Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Von B\u00fcnau, P., Meinecke, F.C., Scholler, S., and M\u00fcller, K.R. (September, January 31). Finding Stationary Brain Sources in EEG Data. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBC\u201910, Buenos Aires, Argentina.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2010.5626537"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2020.105808","article-title":"Effect of Power Feature Covariance Shift on BCI Spatial-Filtering Techniques: A Comparative Study","volume":"198","author":"Jarmolowska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130714","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/130714","article-title":"EEGLAB, SIFT, NFT, BCILAB, and ERICA: New Tools for Advanced EEG Processing","volume":"2011","author":"Delorme","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Mullen, T.R. (2014). The Dynamic Brain: Modeling Neural Dynamics and Interactions from Human Electrophysiological Recordings, University of California."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00007990","article-title":"Partial Directed Coherence: A New Concept in Neural Structure Determination","volume":"84","author":"Sameshima","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-012-0911-y","article-title":"Experimental Comparison of Connectivity Measures with Simulated EEG Signals","volume":"50","author":"Silfverhuth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baccala, L.A., Sameshima, K., and Takahashi, D.Y.Y. (2007, January 1\u20134). Generalized Partial Directed Coherence. Proceedings of the 2007 15th International Conference on Digital Signal Processing, Cardiff, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDSP.2007.4288544"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.10.003","article-title":"Complex Network Measures of Brain Connectivity: Uses and Interpretations","volume":"52","author":"Rubinov","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059414523959","article-title":"Small-World Brain Functional Networks in Children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder Revealed by EEG Synchrony","volume":"46","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059411428555","article-title":"Graph Theoretical Analysis of Organization of Functional Brain Networks in ADHD","volume":"43","author":"Ahmadlou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2020.1796680","article-title":"Resting-State EEG Connectivity in Young Children with ADHD","volume":"50","author":"Furlong","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1177\/15500594221086195","article-title":"Phase-Amplitude Coupling Brain Networks in Children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"53","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-062111-150444","article-title":"Mechanisms of Gamma Oscillations","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.01.012","article-title":"Slow Spindles Are Associated with Cortical High Frequency Activity","volume":"189","author":"Hashemi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2019.11.001","article-title":"Atypical Gamma Functional Connectivity Pattern during Light Sleep in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"42","author":"Ueda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2010.06.024","article-title":"Characterization of Anatomical and Functional Connectivity in the Brain: A Complex Networks Perspective","volume":"77","author":"Stam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.03.018","article-title":"Small-World Human Brain Networks: Perspectives and Challenges","volume":"77","author":"Liao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5456","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23736","article-title":"Cortical Connectivity Modulation during Sleep Onset: A Study via Graph Theory on EEG Data","volume":"38","author":"Vecchio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"94","article-title":"Sleep in Children with Developmental Disabilities","volume":"89","author":"Berkman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Health. R. I."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1352\/0047-6765(2006)44[13:SADDAT]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Sleep and Developmental Disabilities: Assessment, Treatment, and Outcome Measures","volume":"44","author":"Doran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ment. Retard."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2021.01.052","article-title":"Longitudinal Assessment of NREM Sleep EEG in Typically Developing and Medication-Free ADHD Adolescents: First Year Results","volume":"80","author":"Darchia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zsab006","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsab006","article-title":"Sleep EEG Microstructure in Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"44","author":"Biancardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castelnovo, A., Lividini, A., Bernardi, G., Pezzoli, V., Foderaro, G., Ramelli, G.P., Manconi, M., and Miano, S. (2022). Sleep Power Topography in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Children, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/children9020197"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"894","article-title":"Sleep in Children With Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: Meta-Analysis of Subjective and Objective Studies","volume":"48","author":"Cortese","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2012.04.020","article-title":"The Sleep Phenotypes of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Role of Arousal during Sleep and Implications for Treatment","volume":"79","author":"Miano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3874-05.2006","article-title":"A Resilient, Low-Frequency, Small-World Human Brain Functional Network with Highly Connected Association Cortical Hubs","volume":"26","author":"Achard","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Supekar, K., Musen, M., and Menon, V. (2009). Development of Large-Scale Functional Brain Networks in Children. PLoS Biol., 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1000157"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2005.1645","article-title":"Undirected Graphs of Frequency-Dependent Functional Connectivity in Whole Brain Networks","volume":"360","author":"Salvador","year":"2005","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Titone, S., Samogin, J., Peigneux, P., Swinnen, S.P., Mantini, D., and Albouy, G. (2023). Frequency-dependent Connectivity in Large-scale Resting-state Brain Networks during Sleep. Eur. J. Neurosci.","DOI":"10.22541\/au.167694663.36396524\/v1"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(94)90105-8","article-title":"Synchronized Sleep Oscillations and Their Paroxysmal Developments","volume":"17","author":"Steriade","year":"1994","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valderrama, M., Cr\u00e9pon, B., Botella-Soler, V., Martinerie, J., Hasboun, D., Alvarado-Rojas, C., Baulac, M., Adam, C., Navarro, V., and Le Van Quyen, M. (2012). Human Gamma Oscillations during Slow Wave Sleep. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033477"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16890","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1953-14.2014","article-title":"Slow Oscillations during Sleep Coordinate Interregional Communication in Cortical Networks","volume":"34","author":"Cox","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.11.010","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Sleep Spindles Depend on Cortical Location","volume":"146","author":"Piantoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2012.00002","article-title":"Altered Cortico-Striatal-Thalamic Connectivity in Relation to Spatial Working Memory Capacity in Children with ADHD","volume":"3","author":"Mills","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1089\/brain.2014.0313","article-title":"Reproducibility of Graph-Theoretic Brain Network Metrics: A Systematic Review","volume":"5","author":"Welton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Connect."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1089\/brain.2011.0055","article-title":"The Brain as a Complex System: Using Network Science as a Tool for Understanding the Brain","volume":"1","author":"Telesford","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Connect."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2582478","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/2582478","article-title":"Abnormal EEG Complexity and Functional Connectivity of Brain in Patients with Acute Thalamic Ischemic Stroke","volume":"2016","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Math. Methods Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2020.05.028","article-title":"Cortical Source Analysis of Resting State EEG Data in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"131","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(95)00198-8","article-title":"Dynamic spectral analysis of event-related EEG data","volume":"95","author":"Florian","year":"1995","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1981.324753","article-title":"Autoregressive estimation of short segment spectra for computerized EEG analysis","volume":"28","author":"Jansen","year":"1981","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"1718","article-title":"Asymptotic behavior of generalized partial directed coherence","volume":"2010","author":"Takahashi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."}],"container-title":["Entropy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/25\/9\/1244\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:39:06Z","timestamp":1760128746000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1099-4300\/25\/9\/1244"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,22]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["e25091244"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/e25091244","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-4300"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1099-4300"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,22]]}}}