{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T05:17:16Z","timestamp":1767244636371,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014103","name":"Key Research and Development Program of Shandong Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2021CXGC010106"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010106"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014103","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","award":["L251002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["L251002"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62272040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62272040"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62572045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62572045"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62201525"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62201525"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["CUC240T08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUC240T08"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Proof of sequential work (PoSW), as an emerging cryptographic primitive, is designed to provide a verifiable method for proving that a computational process has incurred a real and continuous expenditure of time. This characteristic demonstrates its significant application potential in decentralized systems, time-stamping services, and trusted computing. This paper systematically reviews and discusses the developmental trajectory, typical variants, potential attacks, and diverse applications of PoSW. Concurrently, it places a special emphasis on analyzing the evolutionary path and application scenarios of its important special case\u2014the verifiable delay function (VDF) aiming to provide a comprehensive reference for research and practice in related fields.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e28010033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T05:28:19Z","timestamp":1766986099000},"page":"33","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Survey on Proof of Sequential Work: Development, Security Analysis, and Application Prospects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0029-6636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingjing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer and Cyber Sciences, Communication University of China, Dingfuzhuang East Street, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yinxia","family":"Ran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer and Cyber Sciences, Communication University of China, Dingfuzhuang East Street, Beijing 100024, China"},{"name":"School of Mathematics and Computer Science, Longnan Normal University, Longnan 742500, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiuju","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyberspace Science and Technolog, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cong","family":"Zuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyberspace Science and Technolog, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junke","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyberspace Science and Technolog, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yun","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer and Cyber Sciences, Communication University of China, Dingfuzhuang East Street, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Licheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyberspace Science and Technolog, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Shandong Raone Intelligent Technology Co., Ltd., Jinan 250013, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8972-247X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingtao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer and Cyber Sciences, Communication University of China, Dingfuzhuang East Street, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(1993, January 01). 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