{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:41:41Z","timestamp":1785415301793,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel at the completion of the \u201cQUARTZ (Quantum Information Access and Retrieval Theory)\u201d project"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/006e5kg04","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Entropy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We present the results of cognitive tests on conceptual combinations, performed using specific Large Language Models (LLMs) as test subjects. In the first test, performed with ChatGPT (GPT-5.5 Thinking) and Google Gemini Advanced (Gemini 1.5 Pro), we show that Bell\u2019s inequalities are significantly violated, which indicates the presence of a \u2018non-classical probability model\u2019 with probabilities that do not satisfy Kolmogorov\u2019s axioms. In the second test, also performed using ChatGPT and Gemini, we identify the presence of \u2018Bose\u2013Einstein statistics\u2019, rather than the intuitively expected \u2018Maxwell\u2013Boltzmann statistics\u2019, in the distribution of the words contained in large-size texts. Interestingly, these findings mirror the results previously obtained in both cognitive tests with human participants and information retrieval tests on large corpora. Taken together, they point to the \u2018systematic emergence of non-classical quantum-like structures in conceptual-linguistic domains\u2019, regardless of whether the cognitive agent is human or artificial. Although LLMs are classified as neural networks for historical reasons, we believe that a more essential form of knowledge organization takes place in the distributive semantic structure of vector spaces built on top of the neural network. It is this meaning-bearing structure that lends itself to a phenomenon of evolutionary convergence between human cognition and language, slowly established through biological evolution, and LLM cognition and language, emerging much more rapidly as a result of self-learning and training. We analyze various aspects and examples that contain evidence supporting the above hypothesis. We also advance a unifying framework that explains the pervasive quantum organization of meaning that we identify.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/e28060622","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T06:17:31Z","timestamp":1780467451000},"page":"622","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Identifying Quantum Structure in AI Language: Evidence for Evolutionary Convergence of Human and Artificial Cognition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2266-6658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diederik","family":"Aerts","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonito","family":"Aerts Argu\u00eblles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9982-8411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lester","family":"Beltran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzette","family":"Geriente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7340-6384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Leporini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, University of Bergamo, Via dei Caniana 2, 24127 Bergamo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Massimiliano","family":"Sassoli de Bianchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4338-3737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandro","family":"Sozzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Humanities and Cultural Heritage (DIUM), Centre for Quantum Social and Cognitive Science (CQSCS), University of Udine, Vicolo Florio 2\/b, 33100 Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmp.2009.04.005","article-title":"Quantum structure in cognition","volume":"53","author":"Aerts","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. 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