{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:11:46Z","timestamp":1760195506605,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,8]],"date-time":"2018-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1520467200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"EU H2020","award":["671562"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["671562"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014438","name":"Business Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CORNET"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CORNET"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014438","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fifth generation (5G) technologies will boost the capacity and ease the management of mobile networks. Emerging virtualization and softwarization technologies enable more flexible customization of network services and facilitate cooperation between different actors. However, solutions are needed to enable users, operators, and service providers to gain an up-to-date awareness of the security and trustworthiness of 5G systems. We describe a novel framework and enablers for security monitoring, inferencing, and trust measuring. The framework leverages software-defined networking and big data technologies to customize monitoring for different applications. We present an approach for sharing security measurements across administrative domains. We describe scenarios where the correlation of multi-domain information improves the accuracy of security measures with respect to two threats: end-user location tracking and Internet of things (IoT) authentication storms. We explore the security characteristics of data flows in software networks dedicated to different applications with a mobile network testbed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi10030027","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,8]],"date-time":"2018-03-08T12:07:33Z","timestamp":1520510853000},"page":"27","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Security Awareness in Software-Defined Multi-Domain 5G Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7921-8667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jani","family":"Suomalainen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie 3, 02044 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kimmo","family":"Ahola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie 3, 02044 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mikko","family":"Majanen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie 3, 02044 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Olli","family":"M\u00e4mmel\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie 3, 02044 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pekka","family":"Ruuska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie 3, 02044 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2017, September 28). ITU. Available online: http:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-R\/study-groups\/rsg5\/rwp5d\/imt-2020\/Pages\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"3GPP (2017, November 13). TR 38.913 Study on Scenarios and Requirements for Next Generation Access Technologies. Available online: http:\/\/www.3gpp.org\/ftp\/Specs\/archive\/38_series\/38.913\/38913-e30.zip."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2015.2461602","article-title":"A Survey of 5G Network: Architecture and Emerging Technologies","volume":"3","author":"Gupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"3GPP (2012). Technical Specification Group Services and System Aspects; 3G Security, Security Architecture. (TS 33.102)."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2017, September 28). GPP. Available online: http:\/\/www.3gpp.org\/ftp\/specs\/html-info\/33401.htm."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"3GPP TS 35.215. Specification of the 3GPP Confidentiality and Integrity Algorithms UEA2 & UIA2. Available online: http:\/\/www.3gpp.org\/DynaReport\/35215.htm."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"3GPP (2017, September 28). 3G Security; Access Security for IP-Based Services. 3GPP Specification. Available online: http:\/\/www.3gpp.org\/DynaReport\/33203.htm."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"3GPP (2015). Technical Specification Group Services and System Aspects; 3G Security; Network Domain Security (NDS), IP Network Layer Security (TS33.210)."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Traynor, P., Lin, M., Ongtang, M., Rao, V., and Jaeger, T. (2009, January 9\u201313). On Cellular Botnets: Measuring the Impact of Malicious Devices on a Cellular Network Core. Proceedings of the 16th ACM conference on Computer and Communications Security, Chicago, IL, USA. Available online: http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=1653690.","DOI":"10.1145\/1653662.1653690"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulliner, C., and Seifert, J.-P. (2010, January 19\u201320). Rise of the iBots: Owning a Telco Network. Proceedings of the 2010 5th International Conference on Malicious and Unwanted Software, Nancy, France. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/5665790\/.","DOI":"10.1109\/MALWARE.2010.5665790"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2017, August 17). G-ENSURE Project. Available online: https:\/\/5gensure.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/Deliverables\/5G-ENSURE_D2.4-SecurityArchitectureDraft.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"5G-ENSURE Project (2017, August 17). 5G-PPP Security Enablers Open Specifications (v2.0)\u2014Deliverable D3.6. Available online: https:\/\/5gensure.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/5G-ENSURE_D3.6 5G-PPP security enablers open specifications %28v2.0%29.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"3GPP (2011). Key Performance Indicators (KPI) for Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN): Definitions (Release 8). Available online: www.3gpp.org\/DynaReport\/32450.htm."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"3GPP (2008). Telecommunication Management; Key Performance Indicators (KPI) for Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN): Requirements. Available online: http:\/\/www.qtc.jp\/3GPP\/Specs\/32451-a00.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"ETSI (2017). Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) Release 3; Security; Security Management and Monitoring; Draft, ETSI. GS NFV-SEC 013 V0.0.9."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2017, February 10). ETSI. Available online: http:\/\/www.etsi.org\/deliver\/etsi_gs\/NFV-SEC\/001_099\/003\/01.01.01_60\/gs_NFV-SEC003v010101p.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Martin, A.B., Marinos, L., and Rekleitis, E. (2017, August 14). Threat Landscape and Good Practice Guide for Software Defined Networks\/5G. Available online: http:\/\/openaccess.city.ac.uk\/id\/eprint\/15504."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3059","DOI":"10.1002\/sec.1243","article-title":"A security and Trust Framework for Virtualized Networks and Software-Defined Networking","volume":"9","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31843","DOI":"10.3390\/s151229887","article-title":"A Security Assessment Mechanism for Software-Defined Networking-Based Mobile Networks","volume":"15","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2015.11.016","article-title":"A survey of network anomaly detection techniques","volume":"60","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Verma, T., Bali, S., and Kaul, S. (2013, January 9\u201310). Detecting MS Initiated Signaling DDoS Attacks in 3G\/4G Wireless Networks. Proceedings of the 2013 Fifth International Conference on Communication Systems and Networks (COMSNETS), Bangalore, India. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/6465568\/.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMSNETS.2013.6465568"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2014.02.009","article-title":"Mobile malware detection through analysis of deviations in application network behavior","volume":"43","author":"Shabtai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Marquezan, C., Mahmood, K., and Zafeiropoulos, A. (2017, August 14). Context Awareness in Next Generation of Mobile Core Networks. Available online: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1611.05353."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez, L.B., Caraguay, \u00c1.V., Vidal, J.M., Monge, M.A. S., and Villalba, L.J.G. (2017). Towards Incidence Management in 5G Based on Situational Awareness. Future Internet, 9, Available online: http:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/9\/1\/3\/htm.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi9010003"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Adrichem, N., and Doerr, C. (2014, January 5\u20139). OpenNetMon: Network monitoring in OpenFlow Software-Defined Networks. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Network Operations and Management Symposium (NOMS), Krakow, Poland. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpls\/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6838228.","DOI":"10.1109\/NOMS.2014.6838228"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tootoonchian, A., Ghobadi, M., and Ganjali, Y. (2010). OpenTM: Traffic Matrix Estimator for OpenFlow Networks, Springer. Available online: http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/978-3-642-12334-4_21.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-12334-4_21"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Ballard, J.R., Rae, I., and Akella, A. (2010, January 28\u201330). Extensible and scalable network monitoring using OpenSAFE. Proceedings of the 2010 Internet Network Management Conference on Research on Enterprise Networking, San Jose, CA, USA. Available online: http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=1863141."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2017, October 27). ETSI. Available online: http:\/\/www.etsi.org\/deliver\/etsi_gs\/NFV-SWA\/001_099\/001\/01.01.01_60\/gs_NFV-SWA001v010101p.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2017, September 21). NGMN Alliance. Available online: https:\/\/www.ngmn.org\/uploads\/media\/160113_Network_Slicing_v1_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2017, September 21). VMware. Available online: https:\/\/blogs.vmware.com\/networkvirtualization\/files\/2014\/06\/VMware-SDDC-Micro-Segmentation-White-Paper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"M\u00e4mmel\u00e4, O., Hiltunen, J., Suomalainen, J., Ahola, K., Mannersalo, P., and Vehkaper\u00e4, J. (2017, January 31). Towards Micro-Segmentation in 5G Network Security. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Olli_Maemmelae\/publication\/310447736_Towards_Micro-Segmentation_in_5G_Network_Security\/links\/582d678b08aef19cb811738b.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2016.82","article-title":"Opportunities and Challenges of Software-Defined Mobile Networks in Network Security Perspective","volume":"14","author":"Liyanage","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donatini, L., Garroppo, R.G., Giordano, S., Procissi, G., Roma, S., Foddis, G., and Topazzi, S. (2014, January 13\u201316). Advances in LTE network monitoring: A step towards an SDN solution. Proceedings of the Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference (MELECON), Beirut, Lebanon. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/lpdocs\/epic03\/wrapper.htm?arnumber=6820557.","DOI":"10.1109\/MELCON.2014.6820557"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adami, D., Donatini, L., Foddis, G., Giordano, S., Roma, S., and Topazzi, S. (2014, January 12\u201315). Design and development of management functions for distributed monitoring based on SDN-based network. Proceedings of the Euro Med Telco Conference (EMTC 2014), Naples, Italy. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/lpdocs\/epic03\/wrapper.htm?arnumber=6996655.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMTC.2014.6996655"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yousaf, F., Gramaglia, M., Friderikos, V., Gajic, B., von Hugo, D., Sayadi, B., Sciancalepore, V., and Crippa, M.R. (2017, January 21\u201325). Network slicing with flexible mobility and QoS\/QoE support for 5G Networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on 4th Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), Paris, France. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/abstract\/document\/7962821\/.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCW.2017.7962821"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2003.1160055","article-title":"The vision of autonomic computing","volume":"36","author":"Kephart","year":"2003","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Hiltunen, J., Ruuska, P., and Suomalainen, J. (2017, September 28). Trust Metric Enabler Open Specifications. Available online: https:\/\/5gensure.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/5G-ENSURE_D3.6 5G-PPP security enablers open specifications %28v2.0%29.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Jover, R. (2013, January 24\u201327). Security Attacks against the Availability of LTE Mobility Networks: Overview and Research Directions. Proceedings of the 2013 16th International Symposium on Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications (WPMC), Atlantic City, NJ, USA. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpls\/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6618585."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Jover, R.P. (2016). Security and impact of the IoT on LTE mobile networks. Security and Privacy in the Internet of Things (IoT): Models, Algorithms, and Implementations, Taylor & Francis LLC, CRC Press. Available online: http:\/\/www.ee.columbia.edu\/~roger\/LTE_IoT.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"3GPP (2017, September 22). Study on Machine-Type Communications (MTC) and Other Mobile Data Applications Communications Enhancements. TR 23.887. Available online: http:\/\/www.3gpp.org\/ftp\/Specs\/archive\/23_series\/23.887\/23887-c00.zip."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Cao, J., Ma, M., and Li, H. (2012, January 3\u20137). A group-based authentication and key agreement for MTC in LTE networks. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Anaheim, CA, USA. Available online: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/lpdocs\/epic03\/wrapper.htm?arnumber=6503246."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2013.08.003","article-title":"SE-AKA: A secure and efficient group authentication and key agreement protocol for LTE networks","volume":"57","author":"Lai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giustolisi, R., and Gerhmann, C. (2016, January 26\u201328). Threats to 5G Group-Based Authentication. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Security and Cryptography (SECRYPT 2016), Lisbon, Portugal. Available online: http:\/\/www.diva-portal.org\/smash\/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1062093&dswid=6179.","DOI":"10.5220\/0005996203600367"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Kune, D.F., Koelndorfer, J., Hopper, N., and Kim, Y. (2012, January 5\u20138). Location leaks on the GSM air interface. Proceedings of the Network & Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS), San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaik, A., Borgaonkar, R., Asokan, N., and Niemi, V. (2016, January 21\u201324). Practical attacks against privacy and availability in 4G\/LTE mobile communication systems. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS 2016), San Diego, CA, USA. Available online: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1510.07563.","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2016.23236"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Burke, K. (2017, November 29). How Many Texts Do People Send Every Day? Text Request. Blog. Available online: https:\/\/www.textrequest.com\/blog\/many-texts-people-send-per-day\/."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Sauter, M. (2017, November 29). LTE And The Number Of Simultaneously Connected Users\u2014WirelessMoves. Available online: https:\/\/blog.wirelessmoves.com\/2016\/02\/lte-and-the-number-of-simultaneously-connected-users.html."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Suomalainen, J. (2017, September 28). Security Monitor for 5G-Microsegments. Available online: https:\/\/5gensure.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/Deliverables\/5G-ENSURE_D3.4_5G-PPP_Security_Enablers_Documentation.pdf."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2017, September 28). 5G-ENSURE Project. Web Site. Available online: http:\/\/5gensure.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Shabibi, A., de Leenheer, M., Gerola, M., Koshibe, A., Parulkar, G., Salvadori, E., and Snow, B. (2014, January 22). OpenVirteX. Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Hot Topics in Software Defined Networking (HotSDN \u201914), Chicago, IL, USA. Available online: http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=2620728.2620741.","DOI":"10.1145\/2620728.2620741"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2017, September 28). OpenVirteX Project. Web Site. Available online: http:\/\/mininet.org\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2017, September 28). Ryu SDN Framework Community. Web Site. Available online: https:\/\/osrg.github.io\/ryu\/."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2017, September 28). Mininet Team. Web Site. Available online: http:\/\/mininet.org\/."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2017, October 03). Open vSwitch. Web Site. Available online: http:\/\/openvswitch.org\/."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2017, August 25). Apache Kafka. Available online: https:\/\/kafka.apache.org\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2017, August 25). Apache Spark\u2014Lightning-Fast Cluster Computing. Available online: https:\/\/spark.apache.org\/."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Ailon, N., Jaiswal, R., and Monteleoni, C. (2009). Streaming k-means approximation. Advances in Neural Information, Neural Information Processing Systems Foundation. Available online: http:\/\/papers.nips.cc\/paper\/3812-streaming-k-means-approximation."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Freeman, J. (2017, February 14). Introducing Streaming k-Means in Apache Spark 1.2\u2014The Databricks Blog. Available online: https:\/\/databricks.com\/blog\/2015\/01\/28\/introducing-streaming-k-means-in-spark-1-2.html."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"MacQueen, J. (1965, January 18\u201321). Some methods for classification and analysis of multivariate observations. Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, Berkeley, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1982.1056489","article-title":"Least Squares Quantization in PCM","volume":"28","author":"Lloyd","year":"1982","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2017, October 02). Core Network Dynamics. Available online: https:\/\/www.corenetdynamics.com\/products."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Bergmann, O. (2017, October 02). Libcoap: C-Implementation of CoAP. Available online: https:\/\/libcoap.net\/."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Shelby, Z., Hartke, K., and Bormann, C. (2017, October 02). The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP). Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc7252."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Rosenberg, J., Schulzrinne, H., Camarillo, G., Johnston, A., Peterson, J., Sparks, R., Handley, M., and Schooler, E. (2017, October 02). SIP: Session Initiation Protocol. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc3261."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Schulzrinne, H., Casner, S., Frederick, R., and Jacobson, V. (2017, October 02). RTP: A Transport Protocol for Real-Time Applications. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc3550."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"The Wireshark Team (2017, October 02). Wireshark Web Site. Available online: https:\/\/www.wireshark.org\/."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borg, I., Groenen, P., and Mair, P. (2012). Applied Multidimensional Scaling, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31848-1"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"The Scikit-Learn Project (2017, September 15). sklearn.manifold.MDS\u2014Scikit-Learn 0.19.0 Documentation. Available online: http:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/modules\/generated\/sklearn.manifold.MDS.html."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Steinbach, M., Karypis, G., and Kumar, V. (2000, January 20\u201323). A Comparison of Document Clustering Techniques. Proceedings of the KDD Workshop on Text Mining, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"The Scikit-Learn Project (2017, September 18). sklearn.preprocessing.MinMaxScaler\u2014Scikit-Learn 0.19.0 Documentation. Available online: http:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/modules\/generated\/sklearn.preprocessing.MinMaxScaler.html."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"The Scikit-Learn Project (2017, September 18). sklearn.datasets.make_blobs\u2014Scikit-Learn 0.19.0 Documentation. Available online: http:\/\/scikit-learn.org\/stable\/modules\/generated\/sklearn.datasets.make_blobs.html."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"The Apache Spark Project (2018, February 08). Clustering\u2014RDD-Based API\u2014Spark 2.2.0 Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/spark.apache.org\/docs\/2.2.0\/mllib-clustering.html."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/10\/3\/27\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:56:17Z","timestamp":1760194577000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/10\/3\/27"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,8]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3]]}},"alternative-id":["fi10030027"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi10030027","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-5903"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,8]]}}}