{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:32:00Z","timestamp":1761611520426,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,7]],"date-time":"2020-11-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1604707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The probabilistic Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) routing has been adjusted for vehicular network (VANET) routing through numerous works exploiting the historic routing profile of nodes to forward bundles through better Store-Carry-and-Forward (SCF) relay nodes. In this paper, we propose a new hybrid swarm-inspired probabilistic Vehicular DTN (VDTN) router to optimize the next-SCF vehicle selection using the combination of two bio-metaheuristic techniques called the Firefly Algorithm (FA) and the Glowworm Swarm Optimization (GSO). The FA-based strategy exploits the stochastic intelligence of fireflies in moving toward better individuals, while the GSO-based strategy mimics the movement of glowworm towards better area for displacing and food foraging. Both FA and GSO are executed simultaneously on each node to track better SCF vehicles towards each bundle\u2019s destination. A geography-based recovery method is performed in case no better SCF vehicles are found using the hybrid FA\u2013GSO approach. The proposed FA\u2013GSO VDTN scheme is compared to ProPHET and GeoSpray routers. The simulation results indicated optimized bundles flooding levels and higher profitability of combined delivery delay and delivery probability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi12110192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,8]],"date-time":"2020-11-08T19:03:37Z","timestamp":1604862217000},"page":"192","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Probabilistic VDTN Routing Scheme Based on Hybrid Swarm-Based Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3538-7183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youcef","family":"Azzoug","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene, 16111 Algiers, Algeria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5256-4404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelmadjid","family":"Boukra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene, 16111 Algiers, Algeria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8057-5474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasco N. G. J.","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, 6000-084 Castelo Branco, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2016.01.002","article-title":"A survey of routing and data dissemination in Delay Tolerant Networks","volume":"67","author":"Sobin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-1499-2011-195","article-title":"Performance assessment of fragmentation mechanisms for vehicular delay-tolerant networks","volume":"2011","author":"Dias","year":"2011","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"331","article-title":"A Survey of Delay-and Disruption-Tolerant Networking Applications","volume":"5","author":"Voyiatzis","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Internet Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1587\/transcom.2016CQI0001","article-title":"Towards Practical Store-Carry-Forward Networking: Examples and Issues","volume":"E100-B","author":"Tsuru","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Rodrigues, M.P. (2018). Routing and Dropping Policies for Delay Tolerant Networks, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisboa. Discussion Paper."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2014.03.024","article-title":"Routing protocols in Vehicular Delay Tolerant Networks: A comprehensive survey","volume":"48","author":"Benamar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2011.081611.00102","article-title":"From Delay-Tolerant Networks to Vehicular Delay-Tolerant Networks","volume":"14","author":"Pereira","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"151","article-title":"Performance of Efficient Routing Protocol in Delay Tolerant Network: A Comparative Survey","volume":"7","author":"Mehta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Future Gener. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"139","article-title":"Ahmed, Mohd Hasbullah Omar, Suhaidi Hassan. Routing Strategies and Buffer Management in Delay Tolerant Networks","volume":"8","author":"Kawakib","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Telecommun. Electron. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, H., Ahmed, S.H., Kim, D., and Chung, Y.-S. (2015). Routing Protocols for Vehicular Delay Tolerant Networks: A Survey. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/325027"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pathak, S., Gondaliya, N., and Raja, N. (2017, January 3\u20135). A Survey on ProPHET Based Routing Protocol in Delay Tolerant Network. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Emerging Trends & Innovation in ICT (ICEI), Pune, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ETIICT.2017.7977020"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Lindgren, A., Doria, A., Davies, E., and Grasic, S. (2020, November 05). Probabilistic Routing Protocol for Intermittently Connected Networks. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc6693."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2013.02.041","article-title":"A survey on optimization metaheuristics","volume":"237","author":"Lepagnot","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azzoug, Y., and Boukra, A. (2020). Bio-inspired VANET routing optimization: An overview. Artif. Intell. Rev.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-020-09868-9"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bhattacharyya, S., Chaki, N., Konar, D., Chakraborty, U.K., and Singh, C.T. (2017). Nature-Inspired Optimization Techniques in VANETs and FANETs: A Survey. Advanced Computational and Communication Paradigms, Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Computational and Communication Paradigms (ICACCP 2017), Gangtok, Sikkim, India, 8\u201310 September 2017, Springer."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2012.032612.00004","article-title":"A Survey of Social-Based Routing in Delay Tolerant Networks: Positive and Negative Social Effects","volume":"15","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2011.011011.102512","article-title":"Probabilistic Bundle Relaying Schemes in Two-Hop Vehicular Delay Tolerant Networks","volume":"15","author":"Khabbaz","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1034","article-title":"Spray and Wait Protocol based on Prophet with Dynamic Buffer Management in Delay Tolerant Network","volume":"5","author":"Yashaswini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Recent Innov. Trends Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spyropoulos, T., Psounis, K., and Raghavendra, C.S. (2005, January 22\u201326). Spray and Wait: An Efficient Routing Scheme for Intermittently Connected Mobile Networks. Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGCOMM Workshop on Delay-Tolerant Networking, Philadelphia PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1080139.1080143"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, S.D., and Chung, Y.W. (2015). An Improved PRoPHET Routing Protocol in Delay Tolerant Network. Sci. World J., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/623090"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Vahdat, A., and Becker, D. (2000). Epidemic Routing for Partially-Connected Ad Hoc Networks. Technical Report, Duke Computer Science."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, T.-K., Lee, C.-K., and Chen, L.-J. (2010, January 20\u201323). PRoPHET+: An Adaptive PRoPHET-Based Routing Protocol for Opportunistic Network. Proceedings of the 24th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications, Perth, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINA.2010.162"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, S., Cheng, Z., Wang, C., and Peng, Y. (2014, January 13\u201314). A Deliver Probability Routing for Delay Tolerant Networks (DTN). Proceedings of the International Conference on Wireless Communication and Sensor Network, Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCSN.2014.89"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, F.C., and Yeo, C.K. (2011, January 5\u20138). Probabilistic Routing based on History of Messages in Delay Tolerant Networks. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Fall), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VETECF.2011.6093035"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, Y., Zhou, C., Ling, Y., and Lloret, J. (2019). An Optimized Probabilistic Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) Routing Protocol Based on Scheduling Mechanism for Internet of Things (IoT). Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020243"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2472","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2012.235","article-title":"SGBR: A Routing Protocol for Delay Tolerant Networks Using Social Grouping","volume":"24","author":"Abdelkader","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ababou, M., Elkouch, R., Bellafkih, M., and Ababou, N. (2014, January 12\u201314). AntProPHET: A New Routing Protocol for Delay Tolerant Networks. Proceedings of the 2014 Mediterranean Microwave Symposium (MMS2014), Marrakech, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/MMS.2014.7088999"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Watanabe, O., and Zeugmann, T. (2009). Firefly algorithms for multimodal optimization. Stochastic Algorithms: Foundations and Applications, Proceedings of the 5th Int. Symposium on Stochastic Algorithms (SAGA 2009), Sapporo, Japan, 26 October 2009, Springer."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaipa, K.N., and Ghose, D. (2017). Glowworm Swarm Optimization Theory, Algorithms, and Applications, Springer International Publishing. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-51595-3"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/MCI.2006.329691","article-title":"Ant colony optimization","volume":"1","author":"Dorigo","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Intell. Mag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leontiadis, I., and Mascolo, C. (2007, January 18\u201321). GeOpps: Geographical Opportunistic Routing for Vehicular Networks. Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks, Espoo, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/WOWMOM.2007.4351688"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2011.11.003","article-title":"GeoSpray: A geographic routing protocol for vehicular delay-tolerant networks","volume":"15","author":"Soares","year":"2014","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2020, November 05). Opportunistic Network Environment (ONE) Homepage. Available online: https:\/\/www.netlab.tkk.fi\/tutkimus\/dtn\/theone\/."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/12\/11\/192\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:30:28Z","timestamp":1760178628000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/12\/11\/192"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,7]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["fi12110192"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi12110192","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1999-5903"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,7]]}}}