{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T23:59:48Z","timestamp":1770335988336,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1957348"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1957348"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) or IEEE 802.11p\/OCB (Out of the Context of a Base-station) is widely considered to be a primary technology for Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication, and it is aimed toward increasing the safety of users on the road by sharing information between one another. The requirements of DSRC are to maintain real-time communication with low latency and high reliability. In this paper, we investigate how communication can be used to improve stopping distance performance based on fieldwork results. In addition, we assess the impacts of reduced reliability, in terms of distance independent, distance dependent and density-based consecutive packet losses. A model is developed based on empirical measurements results depending on distance, data rate, and traveling speed. With this model, it is shown that cooperative V2V communications can effectively reduce reaction time and increase safety stop distance, and highlight the importance of high reliability. The obtained results can be further used for the design of cooperative V2V-based driving and safety applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13030068","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T13:27:20Z","timestamp":1615382840000},"page":"68","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Investigating and Modeling of Cooperative Vehicle-to-Vehicle Safety Stopping Distance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5558-6182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steven","family":"Knowles Flanagan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Applied Science, The College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7094-999X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zuoyin","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Applied Science, The College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK"}]},{"given":"Jianhua","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2534-8970","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irfan","family":"Yusoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Applied Science, The College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pressas, A., Sheng, Z., Fussey, P., and Lund, D. (2016, January 27\u201330). Connected vehicles in smart cities: Interworking from inside vehicles to outside. Proceedings of the 2016 13th Annual IEEE International Conference on Sensing, Communication, and Networking (SECON), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAHCN.2016.7732976"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2018.1492142","article-title":"Towards connected autonomous driving: Review of use-cases","volume":"57","author":"Montanaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, March 05). House of Lords Science and Technology Select Committee. Connected and Autonomous Vehicles: The Future?. Available online: http:\/\/www.auto-mat.ch\/wAssets\/docs\/170531_115.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2021, March 05). Economy Lost \u00a38 Billion to Traffic Jams in 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.rac.co.uk\/drive\/news\/motoring-news\/nationwide-congestion-rankings\/."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"ONS (2021, March 05). Reported Road Casualties in Great Britain: Provisional Results 2019, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/904698\/rrcgb-provisional-results-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2017). WHO|Number of Road Traffic Deaths, WHO."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Shao, Y., Ge, Y., and Yu, R. (2019). A survey of vehicle to everything (V2X) testing. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020334"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Hu, J., Shi, Y., Zhao, L., and Li, W. (2020). A vision of C-V2X: Technologies, field testing and challenges with Chinese development. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2974823"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2750452","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/2750452","article-title":"DSRC versus 4G-LTE for connected vehicle applications: A study on field experiments of vehicular communication performance","volume":"2017","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flanagan, S.K., Peng, X.H., Yusoff, I., and He, J. (2020, January 25\u201328). Empirical Investigation of SDR-based DSRC Communication. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring), Antwerp, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2020-Spring48590.2020.9128539"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Scharring, K., Nash, S., and Wong, D. (2021, March 05). Connected and Autonomous Vehicles: Position Paper. Available online: https:\/\/www.smmt.co.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/SMMT-CAV-position-paper-final.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2011.2132790","article-title":"Dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) standards in the United States","volume":"99","author":"Kenney","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2014.05.006","article-title":"Experimental evaluation of CAM and DENM messaging services in vehicular communications","volume":"46","author":"Santa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Car-2-Car (2020, November 02). C-ITS: Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems and Services, about C-ITS. Available online: https:\/\/www.car-2-car.org\/about-c-its\/."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s00502-015-0343-0","article-title":"Standards for vehicular communication\u2014From IEEE 802.11p to 5G","volume":"132","author":"Festag","year":"2015","journal-title":"Elektrotechnik Informationstechnik"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bloessl, B., Segata, M., Sommer, C., and Dressler, F. (2013, January 12). An IEEE 802.11 a\/g\/p OFDM Receiver for GNU Radio. Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Workshop of Software Radio Implementation Forum (SRIF 2013), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/2491246.2491248"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knowles Flanagan, S., He, J., and Peng, X.H. (2018, January 28\u201330). Improving Emergency Collision Avoidance with Vehicle to Vehicle Communications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 20th International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications, IEEE 16th International Conference on Smart City, IEEE 4th International Conference on Data Science and Systems (HPCC\/SmartCity\/DSS), Exeter, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCC\/SmartCity\/DSS.2018.00220"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2011.08.075","article-title":"A collision warning system for rear-end collision: A driving simulator study","volume":"20","author":"Bella","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1687814017725246","article-title":"A review of essential technologies for collision avoidance assistance systems","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482695","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/482695","article-title":"An empirical study on ad hoc performance of DSRC and Wi-Fi vehicular communications","volume":"2013","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"143","article-title":"Performance of Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication using IEEE 802.11p in Vehicular Ad-hoc Network Environment","volume":"5","author":"Khairnar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Netw. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2016.10.003","article-title":"An empirical study of DSRC V2V performance in truck platooning scenarios","volume":"2","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Digit. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carpenter, S.E., and Sichitiu, M.L. (2016, January 22\u201325). Analysis of packet loss in a large-scale DSRC field operational test. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Performance Evaluation and Modeling in Wired and Wireless Networks (PEMWN), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/PEMWN.2016.7842909"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Bai, F., and Krishnan, H. (2006, January 17\u201320). Reliability analysis of DSRC wireless communication for vehicle safety applications. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Lin, W., Li, M., Lan, K., and Hsu, C. (2021, March 05). A Comparison of 802.11a and 802.11p for V-to-I Communication: A Measurement Study. Available online: http:\/\/www.auto-mat.ch\/wAssets\/docs\/170531_115.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iatssr.2017.02.001","article-title":"Application of proximal surrogate indicators for safety evaluation: A review of recent developments and research needs","volume":"41","author":"Mahmud","year":"2017","journal-title":"IATSS Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3087","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2537878","article-title":"Real-Time Rear-End Collision-Warning System Using a Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2013.08.236","article-title":"Throughput and Delay Limits of 802.11p and its Influence on Highway Capacity","volume":"96","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Uno, N., Iida, Y., Itsubo, S., and Yasuhara, S. (2002, January 10\u201313). A microscopic analysis of traffic conflict caused by lane-changing vehicle at weaving section. Proceedings of the 13th Mini-EURO Conference on Handling Uncertainty in the Analysis of Traffic and Transportation Systems, Bari, Italy."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Cohda Wireless (2021, March 05). DSRC Field Trials. Available online: https:\/\/cohdawireless.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/Whitepaper_DSRC-Field-Trials.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3850","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2967649","article-title":"Application-Level Performance of IEEE 802.11p in Safety-Related V2X Field Trials","volume":"7","author":"Klapez","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"IEEE 802.11p Transmission Using GNURadio","volume":"94","year":"2007","journal-title":"Spectrum"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kloc, M., Weigel, R., and Koelpin, A. (2017, January 15\u201318). SDR implementation of an adaptive low-latency IEEE 802.11p transmitter system for real-time wireless applications. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Radio and Wireless Symposium (RWS), Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RWS.2017.7885989"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2021, March 05). Wireless Measurement and Experimentation. Available online: https:\/\/www.wime-project.net\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Safespot (2021, March 05). SAFESPOT INTEGRATED PROJECT\u2014IST-4-026963-IP Actual Safety Application V2V Based. Available online: http:\/\/www.safespot-eu.org\/documents\/SF_D4.2.1_Actual_Safety_Application_V2V_based_v5.2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Layton, R., and Dixon, K. (2021, March 05). Stopping Sight Distance\u2014Discussion Paper 1. Available online: https:\/\/cce.oregonstate.edu\/sites\/cce.oregonstate.edu\/files\/12-2-stopping-sight-distance.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official (AASHTO) (2015). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Wong, J.Y. (2002). Theory of Ground Vehicles, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shuhaimi, N., Heriansyah, I., and Juhana, T. (2015, January 2\u20133). Comparative performance evaluation of DSRC and Wi-Fi Direct in VANET. Proceedings of the 2015 4th International Conference on Instrumentation, Communications, Information Technology, and Biomedical Engineering (ICICI-BME), Bandung, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICI-BME.2015.7401382"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"ETSI Ts 102 637-2 (2021, March 05). Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)\u2014Vehicular Communications\u2014Basic Set of Applications\u2014Part 2: Specification of Cooperative Awareness Basic Service; 2010; Volume 1, pp. 1\u201322. Available online: https:\/\/www.etsi.org\/deliver\/etsi_ts\/102600_102699\/10263702\/01.02.01_60\/ts_10263702v010201p.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"301","article-title":"A robust broadcast scheme for vehicle to vehicle communication system","volume":"1","author":"Shaikh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Conf. Adv. Signal Process. CASP"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1504\/IJVS.2013.056968","article-title":"Forward collision warning system considering both time-to-collision and safety braking distance","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Veh. Saf."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Chen, Y.L., Wang, S.C., and Wang, C.A. (2008, January 21\u201324). Study on vehicle safety distance warning system. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology, Chengdu, China."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.L., and Wang, C.A. (2007, January 22\u201325). Vehicle safety distance warning system: A novel algorithm for vehicle safety distance calculating between moving cars. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE 65th Vehicular Technology Conference\u2014VTC2007-Spring, Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/VETECS.2007.529"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Rao, V.D., Pang, J., Mohamad, S.Q., and Zuo, S. (2008). Road Vehicle Dynamics, SAE International."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Lancefield, N. (2020, November 04). The Highway Code Has a Dangerous Error in It, Campaigners Claim. The Independent. Available online: http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/uk\/home-news\/highway-code-car-stopping-distances-wrong-drivers-thinking-time-brake-rac-a7859061.html."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, F., Adams, M., and Roy, S. (2008, January 19\u201323). V2V wireless communication protocol for rear-end collision avoidance on highways. Proceedings of the ICC Workshops\u20142008 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCW.2008.77"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1","article-title":"A New Safety Distance Calculation for Rear-End Collision Avoidance","volume":"2","author":"Ro","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.7708\/ijtte.2012.2(3).07","article-title":"Study of Deceleration Behaviour of Different Vehicle Types","volume":"2","author":"Maurya","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Traffic Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fambro, D.B., Koppa, R.J., Picha, D.L., and Fitzpatrick, K. (1998). Driver Perception\u2013Brake Response in Stopping Sight Distance Situations. Transp. Res. Rec., 1628.","DOI":"10.3141\/1628-01"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"512","article-title":"Survey and empirical evaluation of nonhomogeneous arrival process models with taxi data","volume":"47","author":"Kuom","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2021, January 13). Highway Code, Driving Test Success, a Safe Separation Distance. Available online: https:\/\/www.drivingtestsuccess.com\/blog\/safe-separation-distance."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"RAC Foundation (2021, January 14). Stopping Distances Made Simple. Available online: https:\/\/www.rac.co.uk\/drive\/advice\/learning-to-drive\/stopping-distances\/."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4756","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2014.2367037","article-title":"A Methodology for Studying 802.11p VANET Broadcasting Performance with Practical Vehicle Distribution","volume":"64","author":"Qiu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vandenberghe, W., Moerman, I., and Demeester, P. (2011, January 23\u201325). Approximation of the IEEE 802.11p Standard Using Commercial Off-The-Shelf IEEE 802.11a Hardware. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on ITS Telecommunications, St. Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITST.2011.6060057"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pressas, A., Sheng, Z., Ali, F., Tian, D., and Nekovee, M. (2018). Contention-based learning MAC protocol for broadcast vehicle-to-vehicle communication. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.","DOI":"10.1109\/VNC.2017.8275614"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arena, F., Pau, G., and Severino, A. (2020). A review on IEEE 802.11p for intelligent transportation systems. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan9020022"}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/13\/3\/68\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:35:55Z","timestamp":1760160955000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/13\/3\/68"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["fi13030068"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi13030068","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]}}}