{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T03:23:22Z","timestamp":1775705002935,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]],"date-time":"2021-07-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are widely used for the navigation of land vehicles. However, the positioning accuracy of GNSS, such as the global positioning system (GPS), deteriorates in urban areas due to signal blockage and multipath effects. GNSS can be integrated with a micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS)\u2013based inertial navigation system (INS), such as a reduced inertial sensor system (RISS) using a Kalman filter (KF) to enhance the performance of the integrated navigation solution in GNSS challenging environments. The linearized KF cannot model the low-cost and small-size sensors due to relatively high noise levels and compound error characteristics. This paper reviews two approaches to employing parallel cascade identification (PCI), a non-linear system identification technique, augmented with KF to enhance the navigational solution. First, PCI models azimuth errors for a loosely coupled 2D RISS integrated system with GNSS to obtain a navigation solution. The experimental results demonstrated that PCI improved the integrated 2D RISS\/GNSS performance by modeling linear, non-linear, and other residual azimuth errors. For the second scenario, PCI is utilized for modeling residual pseudorange correlated errors of a KF-based tightly coupled RISS\/GNSS navigation solution. Experimental results have shown that PCI enhances the performance of the tightly coupled KF by modeling the non-linear pseudorange errors to provide an enhanced and more reliable solution. For the first algorithm, the results demonstrated that PCI can enhance the performance by 77% as compared to the KF solution during the GNSS outages. For the second algorithm, the performance improvement for the proposed PCI technique during the availability of three satellites was 39% compared to the KF solution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13080191","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]],"date-time":"2021-07-26T09:25:52Z","timestamp":1627291552000},"page":"191","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Implementation of Parallel Cascade Identification at Various Phases for Integrated Navigation System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7683-5045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umar","family":"Iqbal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39759, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6319-2877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashraf","family":"Abosekeen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical Engineering Branch, Military Technical College (MTC), Cairo 11762, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jacques","family":"Georgy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TDK-InvenSense Inc., #405, 1000 Veterans Place NW, Calgary, AB T3B 4M1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Areejah","family":"Umar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Science, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39759, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6614-7783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aboelmagd","family":"Noureldin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada (RMCC), Kingston, ON K7K7B4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael J.","family":"Korenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Queen\u2019s University, Kingston, ON K7L3N6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1109\/JRPROC.1962.288302","article-title":"From Circuit Theory to System Theory","volume":"50","author":"Zadeh","year":"1962","journal-title":"Proc. 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