{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T16:18:57Z","timestamp":1778257137693,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,8]],"date-time":"2021-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633651200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) is a promising technology to charge Electric Vehicles (EV) using on-road charging segments (CS), also known as DWC pads. In order to ensure effective utilization of this on-the-road charging service, communication and coordination need to be established between the EVs and the different network entities, thereby forming an Internet of Electric Vehicles (IoEV). In an IoEV, EVs can utilize different V2X communication modes to enable charging scheduling, load management, and reliable authentication and billing services. Yet, designing an authentication scheme for dynamic EV charging presents significant challenges given the mobility of the EVs and the short contact time between the EVs and the charging segments. Accordingly, this work proposes a fast, secure and lightweight authentication scheme that allows only authentic EVs with valid credentials to charge their batteries while ensuring secure and fair payments. The presented scheme starts with a key pre-distribution phase between the charging service company (CSC) and the charging pad owner (PO), followed by a hash chain and digital signature-based registration and authentication phase between the EV and the CSC, before the EV reaches the beginning of the charging lane. These preliminary authentication phases allow the authentication between the EVs and the charging segments to be performed using simple hash key verification operations prior to charging activation, which reduces the computational cost of the EVs and the CS. Symmetric and asymmetric key cryptography are utilized to secure the communication between the different network entities. Analysis of the computational and transmission time requirements of the proposed authentication scheme shows that, for an EV traveling at 60 km\/h to start charging at the beginning of the charging lane, the authentication process must be initiated at least 1.35 m ahead of the starting point of the lane as it requires \u224381 ms to be completed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13100257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,10]],"date-time":"2021-10-10T21:23:25Z","timestamp":1633901005000},"page":"257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Authentication and Billing for Dynamic Wireless EV Charging in an Internet of Electric Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1342-2934","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eiman","family":"ElGhanam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ibtihal","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6318-0748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Osman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-est.2016.0078","article-title":"Review of prospects for adoption of fuel cell electric vehicles in New Zealand","volume":"7","author":"Jayakumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Electr. Syst. Transp."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2017.2780627","article-title":"Wireless Power Transfer for Vehicular Applications: Overview and Challenges","volume":"4","author":"Patil","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrif."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13866","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2812303","article-title":"A Comprehensive Study of Implemented International Standards, Technical Challenges, Impacts and Prospects for Electric Vehicles","volume":"6","author":"Habib","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77077","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2866461","article-title":"Energy Efficient Integration of Renewable Energy Sources in the Smart Grid for Demand Side Management","volume":"6","author":"Javaid","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Electric Power Research Institute (2019). Interoperability of Public Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure, Electric Power Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ElGhanam, E., Hassan, M., and Osman, A. (2021). Design of a High Power, LCC-Compensated, Dynamic, Wireless Electric Vehicle Charging System with Improved Misalignment Tolerance. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14040885"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corti, F., Reatti, A., Piccirilli, M.C., Grasso, F., Paolucci, L., and Kazimierczuk, M.K. (2020, January 17\u201320). Simultaneous Wireless Power and Data Transfer: Overview and Application to Electric Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), Seville, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCAS45731.2020.9180786"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abou Houran, M., Yang, X., and Chen, W. (2018). Magnetically Coupled Resonance WPT: Review of Compensation Topologies, Resonator Structures with Misalignment, and EMI Diagnostics. Electronics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics7110296"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2305","DOI":"10.1109\/TSG.2016.2522379","article-title":"Portunes+: Privacy-preserving fast authentication for dynamic electric vehicle charging","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Smart Grid"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2017.07.013","article-title":"Robust planning of dynamic wireless charging infrastructure for battery electric buses","volume":"83","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6368","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2015.2424712","article-title":"Economic Analysis of the Dynamic Charging Electric Vehicle","volume":"30","author":"Jeong","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ElGhanam, E.A., Hassan, M.S., and Osman, A.H. (2020, January 9\u201312). Deployment Optimization of Dynamic Wireless Electric Vehicle Charging Systems: A Review. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International IOT, Electronics and Mechatronics Conference (IEMTRONICS), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMTRONICS51293.2020.9216415"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mou, X., Zhao, R., and Gladwin, D.T. (2018, January 21\u201323). Vehicle to Vehicle Charging (V2V) Bases on Wireless Power Transfer Technology. Proceedings of the IECON 2018\u201444th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON.2018.8592888"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42551","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2847765","article-title":"Route Optimization of Electric Vehicles Based on Dynamic Wireless Charging","volume":"6","author":"Kosmanos","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74853","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2987607","article-title":"Charging Strategy Unifying Spatial-Temporal Coordination of Electric Vehicles","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salda\u00f1a, G., San Martin, J.I., Zamora, I., Asensio, F.J., and O\u00f1ederra, O. (2019). Electric Vehicle into the Grid: Charging Methodologies Aimed at Providing Ancillary Services Considering Battery Degradation. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12122443"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65467","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2917297","article-title":"Efficient Power Management Algorithm Based on Fuzzy Logic Inference for Electric Vehicles Parking Lot","volume":"7","author":"Hussain","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2020.2964107","article-title":"Internet of Vehicles [Scanning the Issue]","volume":"108","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-1499-2014-223","article-title":"A survey on communication technologies and requirements for internet of electric vehicles","volume":"2014","author":"Bayram","year":"2014","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7690","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2838018","article-title":"IEEE 1609 WAVE and IEC 61850 standard communication based integrated EV charging management in smart grids","volume":"67","author":"Hussain","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ElGhanam, E., Hassan, M., Osman, A., and Ahmed, I. (2021). Review of Communication Technologies for Electric Vehicle Charging Management and Coordination. World Electr. Veh. J., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj12030092"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203478","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3036415","article-title":"Game and Contract Theory-Based Energy Transaction Management for Internet of Electric Vehicle","volume":"8","author":"Jember","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2017.1600254WC","article-title":"Toward Efficient, Scalable, and Coordinated On-the-Move EV Charging Management","volume":"24","author":"Cao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2019.2961937","article-title":"Evolutionary V2X Technologies Toward the Internet of Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"108","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2019.2948302","article-title":"5G Vehicle-to-Everything Services: Gearing Up for Security and Privacy","volume":"108","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2894","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2017.2741719","article-title":"Demand-Side Management With Household Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Bayesian Game-Theoretic Approach","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3486","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2017.2784418","article-title":"Game-Theoretic Electric Vehicle Charging Management Resilient to Non-Ideal User Behavior","volume":"19","author":"Mediwaththe","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, S., Lee, K.B., Ahmed, M.A., Hayes, B., and Kim, Y.C. (2020). Two-Stage Fuzzy Logic Inference Algorithm for Maximizing the Quality of Performance under the Operational Constraints of Power Grid in Electric Vehicle Parking Lots. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13184634"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, S., Ahmed, M.A., Lee, K.B., and Kim, Y.C. (2020). Fuzzy Logic Weight Based Charging Scheme for Optimal Distribution of Charging Power among Electric Vehicles in a Parking Lot. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13123119"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"31","article-title":"WAVE 4 V2G: Wireless access in vehicular environments for vehicle-to-grid applications","volume":"3","author":"Mouftah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Veh. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gil, A., Sauras-Perez, P., and Taiber, J. (2014, January 17\u201319). Communication requirements for dynamic wireless power transfer for battery electric vehicles. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEVC.2014.7056176"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, A.G., Basharat, S., and Riaz, M.U. (2018). Analysis of asymmetric cryptography in information security based on computational study to ensure confidentiality during information exchange. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res., 992\u2013999.","DOI":"10.14299\/ijser.2018.10.05"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bokhari, M.U., and Shallal, Q.M. (2016). A review on symmetric key encryption techniques in cryptography. Int. J. Comput. Appl., 147.","DOI":"10.5120\/ijca2016911203"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Atreya, M., and Hammond, B. (2002). Digital Signatures, McGraw-Hill, Inc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2019.102004","article-title":"Authentication protocol in CTNs for a CWD-WPT charging system in a cloud environment","volume":"97","author":"Roman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s102070100002","article-title":"The elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA)","volume":"1","author":"Johnson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"ANSI (2005). Public Key Cryptography for the Financial Services Industry: The Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA), ANSI X9.62; American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI)."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31309","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3060046","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of Authentication Schemes in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network","volume":"9","author":"Azam","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petit, J. (2009, January 20\u201323). Analysis of ECDSA authentication processing in VANETs. Proceedings of the 2009 3rd International Conference on New Technologies, Mobility and Security, Cairo, Egypt.","DOI":"10.1109\/NTMS.2009.5384696"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y.C., Jakobsson, M., and Perrig, A. (2005, January 7\u201310). Efficient constructions for one-way hash chains. Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Cryptography and Network Security, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/11496137_29"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., D\u00e1n, G., and Nahrstedt, K. (2015, January 8\u201312). Proactive key dissemination-based fast authentication for in-motion inductive EV charging. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2015.7248419"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamouid, K., and Adi, K. (2020, January 20\u201322). Privacy-aware Authentication Scheme for Electric Vehicle In-motion Wireless Charging. Proceedings of the 2020 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISNCC49221.2020.9297199"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabieh, K., and Wei, M. (2017, January 21\u201325). Efficient and privacy-aware authentication scheme for EVs pre-paid wireless charging services. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996868"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gunukula, S., Sherif, A.B., Pazos-Revilla, M., Ausby, B., Mahmoud, M., and Shen, X.S. (2017, January 21\u201325). Efficient scheme for secure and privacy-preserving electric vehicle dynamic charging system. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7997252"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"3304","article-title":"Secure and privacy-preserving physical-layer-assisted scheme for EV dynamic charging system","volume":"67","author":"Alsharif","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224729","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3044293","article-title":"A Lightweight Secure Management Scheme for Energy Harvesting Dynamic Wireless Charging System","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, R., Kim, D., Nogueira, M., Son, J., Tokuta, A., and Oh, H. (2015, January 16\u201318). A new privacy-aware mutual authentication mechanism for charging-on-the-move in online electric vehicles. Proceedings of the 2015 11th International Conference on Mobile Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks (MSN), Shenzhen, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/MSN.2015.31"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5676030","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/5676030","article-title":"PBF: A new privacy-aware billing framework for online electric vehicles with bidirectional auditability","volume":"2017","author":"Hussain","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148424","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2946241","article-title":"LSPP: Lightweight and Secure Payment Protocol for Dynamic Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles in Vehicular Cloud","volume":"7","author":"Tajmohammadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1325698","article-title":"Privacy-preserving billing scheme against free-riders for wireless charging electric vehicles","volume":"2017","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mob. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2017.1600375","article-title":"Enhancing vehicular communication using 5G-enabled smart collaborative networking","volume":"24","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70169","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2919489","article-title":"IEEE 802.11bd 5G NR V2X: Evolution of Radio Access Technologies for V2X Communications","volume":"7","author":"Naik","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOMSTD.001.1900044","article-title":"Vehicular Communications for ITS: Standardization and Challenges","volume":"4","author":"Zeadally","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Stand. Mag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1800109","article-title":"Key Technologies, Modeling Approaches, and Challenges for Millimeter-Wave Vehicular Communications","volume":"56","author":"Gomez","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.1900141","article-title":"Physical-Layer Security and Privacy for Vehicle-to-Everything","volume":"57","author":"ElHalawany","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7996","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2807383","article-title":"An anonymous ECC-based self-certified key distribution scheme for the smart grid","volume":"65","author":"Nikooghadam","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Dabukke, A.K. (2021, July 13). 5G Korea\u2014Network Simulator v1.0 User Manual; 5G Wireless Innovative Systems Engineering Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/pdfcoffee.com\/qdownload\/5g-k-simnetusermanual-pdf-free.html."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/13\/10\/257\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:10:22Z","timestamp":1760166622000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/13\/10\/257"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,8]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["fi13100257"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi13100257","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,8]]}}}