{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T06:31:49Z","timestamp":1782369109642,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]],"date-time":"2022-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)","award":["20H0417"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H0417"]}]},{"name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)","award":["JPMJFS2107"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJFS2107"]}]},{"name":"Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)","award":["20H0417"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H0417"]}]},{"name":"Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)","award":["JPMJFS2107"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJFS2107"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Many IoT-blockchain systems in which blockchain connections run on an infrastructure-based network, such as Wi-Fi or LTE, face a severe problem: the single point of failure (SPoF) (i.e., depending on the availability, an access point of an LTE base station). Using infrastructure-less networks (i.e., ad hoc networks) is an efficient approach to prevent such highly disruptive events. An ad hoc network can automatically restore blockchain communication using an ad hoc routing protocol, even if a node fails. Moreover, an ad hoc routing protocol is more efficient when considering the IoT nodes\u2019 mobility. In this paper, we first construct IoT-blockchain systems on emulated and real ad hoc networks with Ethereum and three ad hoc routing protocols (i.e., OLSR, BATMAN, and BABEL). We then evaluate the blockchain recovery time in static and mobile scenarios. The results show that BATMAN achieves the best blockchain recovery performance in all investigated scenarios because BATMAN only determines whether to switch a route by comparing the number of OGM packets received from a different next-hop. More specifically, in the small-scale real IoT-blockchain, BATMAN recovers at least 73.9% and 59.8% better than OLSR and BABEL, respectively. In the medium-scale emulated IoT-blockchain, the recovery time of BATMAN is at least 69% and 60% shorter than OLSR or BABEL, respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi14110330","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,15]],"date-time":"2022-11-15T02:31:15Z","timestamp":1668479475000},"page":"330","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A Comparison of Blockchain Recovery Time in Static and Mobile IoT-Blockchain Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8813-4198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yue","family":"Su","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba-shi 263-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0400-3084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kien","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba-shi 263-8522, Japan"},{"name":"Institute for Advanced Academic Research, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba-shi 263-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3557-1463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroo","family":"Sekiya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba-shi 263-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yli-Huumo, J., Ko, D., Choi, S., Park, S., and Smolander, K. (2016). Where is current research on blockchain technology?\u2014A systematic review. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0163477"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2017.04.011","article-title":"Sustainability of bitcoin and blockchains","volume":"28","author":"Vranken","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115876","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3003020","article-title":"A review on application of blockchain in 5G and beyond networks: Taxonomy, field-trials, challenges and opportunities","volume":"8","author":"Tahir","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tijan, E., Aksentijevi\u0107, S., Ivani\u0107, K., and Jardas, M. (2019). Blockchain technology implementation in logistics. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11041185"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gatteschi, V., Lamberti, F., Demartini, C., Pranteda, C., and Santamar\u00eda, V. (2018). Blockchain and smart contracts for insurance: Is the technology mature enough?. Future Internet, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi10020020"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.05.046","article-title":"On blockchain and its integration with IoT. Challenges and opportunities","volume":"88","author":"Reyna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ethereum: A secure decentralised generalised transaction ledger","volume":"151","author":"Wood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ethereum Proj. Yellow Pap."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Baliga, A., Subhod, I., Kamat, P., and Chatterjee, S. (2018). Performance evaluation of the quorum blockchain platform. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakada, R., Li, Z., Pei, T., Nguyen, K., and Sekiya, H. (2021, January 27\u201330). An iota-based micropayment system for air quality monitoring application. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 94th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2021-Fall), Norman, OK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2021-Fall52928.2021.9625358"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"3712","article-title":"Food traceability on blockchain: Walmart\u2019s pork and mango pilots with IBM","volume":"1","author":"Kamath","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Br. Blockchain Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Tian, S., Nguyen, K., and Sekiya, H. (2021). Decentralizing private blockchain-iot network with olsr. Future Internet, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13070168"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, Y., Nguyen, K., and Sekiya, H. (2022, January 7\u20139). Recovery Time Evaluation of Ad-hoc Routing Protocols in IoT-Blockchain. Proceedings of the IEEE 4th Global Conference on Life Sciences and Technologies (LifeTech), Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/LifeTech53646.2022.9754813"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chroboczek, J. (2022, October 09). The Babel Routing Protocol. Available online: https:\/\/www.rfc-editor.org\/rfc\/rfc8966.html.","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC8966"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abolhasan, M., Hagelstein, B., and Wang, J.P. (2009, January 8\u201310). Real-world performance of current proactive multi-hop mesh protocols. Proceedings of the 2009 15th Asia-Pacific Conference on Communications, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/APCC.2009.5375690"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murray, D., Dixon, M., and Koziniec, T. (2010, January 3\u201331). An experimental comparison of routing protocols in multi hop ad hoc networks. Proceedings of the 2010 Australasian Telecommunication Networks and Applications Conference, Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ATNAC.2010.5680190"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fontes, R.R., Afzal, S., Brito, S.H., Santos, M.A., and Rothenberg, C.E. (2015, January 9\u201313). Mininet-WiFi: Emulating software-defined wireless networks. Proceedings of the International Conference on Network and Service Management (CNSM), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/CNSM.2015.7367387"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walker, M.A., Dubey, A., Laszka, A., and Schmidt, D.C. (2017, January 11). Platibart: A platform for transactive iot blockchain applications with repeatable testing. Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Middleware and Applications for the Internet of Things, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3152141.3152392"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rejeb, A., Keogh, J.G., and Treiblmaier, H. (2019). Leveraging the internet of things and blockchain technology in supply chain management. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11070161"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2020.2979856","article-title":"A blockchain-based self-tallying voting protocol in decentralized IoT","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Q., Man, K.L., Li, M., and Gao, B. (2019, January 28\u201330). Using blockchain to enhance and optimize IoT-based intelligent traffic system. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Platform Technology and Service (PlatCon), Jeju, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/PlatCon.2019.8669412"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwivedi, A.D., Srivastava, G., Dhar, S., and Singh, R. (2019). A decentralized privacy-preserving healthcare blockchain for IoT. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020326"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1570-8705(03)00043-X","article-title":"A review of routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks","volume":"2","author":"Abolhasan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1023\/B:MONE.0000031592.23792.1c","article-title":"Performance evaluation of routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks","volume":"9","author":"Boukerche","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mob. Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barolli, L., Ikeda, M., De Marco, G., Durresi, A., and Xhafa, F. (2009, January 26\u201329). Performance analysis of OLSR and BATMAN protocols considering link quality parameter. Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications, Bradford, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINA.2009.28"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3683","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2812727","article-title":"Would current ad-hoc routing protocols be adequate for the internet of vehicles? a comparative study","volume":"5","author":"Bujari","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4947","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2014.2321576","article-title":"Performance evaluation of BATMAN routing protocol for VoIP services: A QoE perspective","volume":"13","author":"Cano","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.camwa.2011.07.035","article-title":"Performance comparison of OLSR and BATMAN routing protocols by a MANET testbed in stairs environment","volume":"63","author":"Kulla","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Math. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13673-020-0214-5","article-title":"A blockchain-based smart home gateway architecture for preventing data forgery","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum.-Centric Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7629","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.3048398","article-title":"Blockchain-based key management for heterogeneous flying ad hoc network","volume":"17","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2011.6069711","article-title":"Smart community: An internet of things application","volume":"49","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Clausen, T., and Jacquet, P. (2022, October 09). Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR). Technical Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.rfc-editor.org\/rfc\/rfc3626.html."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Neumann, A., Aichele, C., Lindner, M., and Wunderlich, S. (2022, October 09). Better Approach to Mobile Ad-Hoc Networking (B.A.T.M.A.N.). Internet-Draft Draft-Wunderlich-Openmesh-Manet-Routing-00, Internet Engineering Task Force. Available online: https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/doc\/draft-openmesh-b-a-t-m-a-n\/."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19246","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3165666","article-title":"On the Latency Performance in Private Blockchain Networks","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.3390\/s130201942","article-title":"A routing protocol based on energy and link quality for internet of things applications","volume":"13","author":"Machado","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/14\/11\/330\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:17:38Z","timestamp":1760145458000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/14\/11\/330"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["fi14110330"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi14110330","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]]}}}