{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T22:47:46Z","timestamp":1776293266336,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,19]],"date-time":"2024-10-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007806","name":"Telkom (South Africa)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["n\/a"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\/a"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007806","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) technology offers efficient connectivity for numerous end devices over a wide coverage area in the Internet of Things (IoT) network, enabling the exchange of data over the Internet between even the most minor Internet-connected devices and systems. One of LoRaWAN\u2019s hallmark features is the Adaptive Data Rate (ADR) algorithm. ADR is a resource allocation function which dynamically adjusts the network\u2019s data rate, airtime, and energy dissipation to optimise its performance. The allocation of spreading factors plays a critical function in defining the throughput of the end device and its robustness to interference. However, in practical deployments, LoRaWAN networks experience considerable interference, severely affecting the packet delivery ratio, energy utilisation, and general network performance. To address this, we present a novel ADR framework, SSFIR-ADR, which utilises randomised spreading factor allocation to minimise energy consumption and packet collisions while maintaining optimal network performance. We implement a LoRa network composed of a single gateway that connects loads of end nodes to a network server. In terms of energy use, packet delivery rate, and interference rate (IR), our simulation implementation does better than LoRaWAN\u2019s legacy ADR scheme for a range of application data intervals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16100380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,21]],"date-time":"2024-10-21T08:53:11Z","timestamp":1729500791000},"page":"380","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Collision Avoidance Adaptive Data Rate Algorithm for LoRaWAN"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8694-4886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel","family":"Kufakunesu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4026-687X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerhard P.","family":"Hancke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"},{"name":"College for Automation and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6413-3924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adnan M.","family":"Abu-Mahfouz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa"},{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria 0184, South Africa"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-019-06832-x","article-title":"Novel Enhanced LoRaWAN Framework for Smart Home Remote Control Security","volume":"110","author":"Naoui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. 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