{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T19:09:01Z","timestamp":1772824141009,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]],"date-time":"2024-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"BARCELONA Supercomputing Center (TIFON)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a novel approach to enhancing the security and reliability of drone communications through the integration of Quantum Random Number Generators (QRNG) in Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) systems. We propose a multi-drone framework that leverages QRNG technology to generate truly random frequency hopping sequences, significantly improving resistance against jamming and interception attempts. Our method introduces a concurrent access protocol for multiple drones to share a QRNG device efficiently, incorporating robust error handling and a shared memory system for random number distribution. The implementation includes secure communication protocols, ensuring data integrity and confidentiality through encryption and Hash-based Message Authentication Code (HMAC) verification. We demonstrate the system\u2019s effectiveness through comprehensive simulations and statistical analyses, including spectral density, frequency distribution, and autocorrelation studies of the generated frequency sequences. The results show a significant enhancement in the unpredictability and uniformity of frequency distributions compared to traditional pseudo-random number generator-based approaches. Specifically, the frequency distributions of the drones exhibited a relatively uniform spread across the available spectrum, with minimal discernible patterns in the frequency sequences, indicating high unpredictability. Autocorrelation analyses revealed a sharp peak at zero lag and linear decrease to zero values for other lags, confirming a general absence of periodicity or predictability in the sequences, which enhances resistance to predictive attacks. Spectral analysis confirmed a relatively flat power spectral density across frequencies, characteristic of truly random sequences, thereby minimizing vulnerabilities to spectral-based jamming. Statistical tests, including Chi-squared and Kolmogorov-Smirnov, further confirm the unpredictability of the frequency sequences generated by QRNG, supporting enhanced security measures against predictive attacks. While some short-term correlations were observed, suggesting areas for improvement in QRNG technology, the overall findings confirm the potential of QRNG-based FHSS systems in significantly improving the security and reliability of drone communications. This work contributes to the growing field of quantum-enhanced wireless communications, offering substantial advancements in security and reliability for drone operations. The proposed system has potential applications in military, emergency response, and secure commercial drone operations, where enhanced communication security is paramount.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16110412","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]],"date-time":"2024-11-08T04:02:54Z","timestamp":1731038574000},"page":"412","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Enhancing Communication Security in Drones Using QRNG in Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8334-4719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"de Curt\u00f2","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Applications in Science & Engineering, BARCELONA Supercomputing Center, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Escuela T\u00e9cnica Superior de Ingenier\u00eda (ICAI), Universidad Pontificia Comillas, 28015 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Estudis d\u2019Inform\u00e0tica, Multim\u00e8dia i Telecomunicaci\u00f3, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 08018 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5844-7871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I.","family":"de Zarz\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Estudis d\u2019Inform\u00e0tica, Multim\u00e8dia i Telecomunicaci\u00f3, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 08018 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Departamento de Inform\u00e1tica e Ingenier\u00eda de Sistemas, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0038-0539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan-Carlos","family":"Cano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Inform\u00e1tica de Sistemas y Computadores, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5729-3041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos T.","family":"Calafate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Inform\u00e1tica de Sistemas y Computadores, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46022 Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Zarz\u00e0, I., de Curt\u00f2, J., Roig, G., and Calafate, C.T. (2023). LLM Adaptive PID Control for B5G Truck Platooning Systems. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23135899"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1109\/49.54466","article-title":"Frequency-Hopping Spread-Spectrum Modulation for Digital Communications Over Electrical Power Lines","volume":"8","author":"Dostert","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2021.3136752","article-title":"Adaptive Measurement and Decoding of Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum Signals Based on Knowledge Enhanced Compressed Sensing","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boutsioukis, N. (2024, September 01). Comparative Analysis of Pseudorandom Number Generators: Mersenne Twister, Middle Square Method, and Linear Congruential Generator Through Dieharder Tests. Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=4354305.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4761542"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Cannizzo, F. (2023). VMT19937: A SIMD-Friendly Pseudo Random Number Generator based on Mersenne Twister 19937. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Yao, X., Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Xu, L., Tong, H., and Liu, K. (2023, January 3\u20135). Novel Random SVPWM Technique Based on Tiny Mersenne Twister PRNG to Reduce PWM Harmonic. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Mechanical Design and Simulation (MDS 2023), Xi\u2019an, China. SPIE Proceedings.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2681973"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110259","article-title":"A privacy-preserving key transmission protocol to distribute QRNG keys using zk-SNARKs","volume":"242","author":"Soler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Guo, X., Lin, F., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., and Guo, Y. (2023). Parallel CV-QRNG with Strict Entropy Evaluation. Photonics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/photonics10070786"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1140\/epjp\/s13360-023-04421-3","article-title":"Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG): Theoretical and Experimental Investigations","volume":"138","author":"Haider","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. Plus"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandey, S.K., and Jenef, R. (2024, January 3\u20137). A Comparative Study and Analysis of Quantum Random Number Generator with True Random Number Generator. Proceedings of the 2024 16th International Conference on COMmunication Systems & NETworkS (COMSNETS), Bengaluru, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMSNETS59351.2024.10426934"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lamarr, H., and Antheil, G. (1942). Secret Communication System. (No. 2,292,387), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Menezes, A.J., van Oorschot, P.C., and Vanstone, S.A. (1996). Handbook of Applied Cryptography, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16021","DOI":"10.1038\/npjqi.2016.21","article-title":"Quantum random number generation","volume":"2","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1150518","article-title":"A fast and compact quantum random number generator","volume":"71","author":"Jennewein","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1145\/359340.359342","article-title":"A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems","volume":"21","author":"Rivest","year":"1978","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Miller, V.S. (1985). Use of elliptic curves in cryptography. Advances in Cryptology\u2014CRYPTO\u201985, Springer."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1090\/S0025-5718-1987-0866109-5","article-title":"Elliptic curve cryptosystems","volume":"48","author":"Koblitz","year":"1987","journal-title":"Math. Comput."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2001). Announcing the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), NIST. FIPS Publication 197."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.001645","article-title":"Ultra-fast quantum randomness generation by accelerated phase diffusion in a pulsed laser diode","volume":"22","author":"Amaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2495297","article-title":"Survey of important issues in UAV communication networks","volume":"18","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11100","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2710379","article-title":"Secure and Efficient Protocol for Route Optimization in PMIPv6-Based Smart Home IoT Networks","volume":"5","author":"Shin","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2012.12.004","article-title":"Flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs): A survey","volume":"11","author":"Bekmezci","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109051","article-title":"Resource-Efficient Seamless Transitions for High-Performance Multi-Hop UAV Multicasting","volume":"213","author":"Tu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20574","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3291997","article-title":"Physical-Layer Jammer Detection in Multihop IoT Networks","volume":"10","author":"Abdollahi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Wang, A., Wu, W., Zhao, Z., Xu, Y., Lei, R., and Yue, K. (2023). Deep-Learning-Based Recovery of Frequency-Hopping Sequences for Anti-Jamming Applications. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12030496"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eltholth, A.A. (2023). Improved Spectrum Coexistence in 2.4 GHz ISM Band Using Optimized Chaotic Frequency Hopping for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth Signals. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23115183"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sokolov, V., Skladannyi, P., and Platonenko, A. (2023, January 19\u201321). Jump-Stay Jamming Attack on Wi-Fi Systems. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 18th International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technologies (CSIT), Lviv, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSIT61576.2023.10324031"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"5566","article-title":"Physical-layer reliability of drones and their counter-measures: Full vs. half duplex","volume":"22","author":"Riihonen","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganesan, T., Jayarajan, N., and Shri Varun, B.G. (2023). Dynamic Control, Architecture, and Communication Protocol for Swarm Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Computing in Intelligent Transportation Systems, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-38669-5_3"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herbst, J., M\u00fcller, R., Lipps, C., and Schotten, H.D. (2024, January 3\u20136). A Ring Topology Approach: Efficient Communication in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs). Proceedings of the 2024 Joint European Conference on Networks and Communications & 6G Summit (EuCNC\/6G Summit), Antwerp, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/EuCNC\/6GSummit60053.2024.10597045"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036125","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0199568","article-title":"Comparing pseudo- and quantum-random number generators with Monte Carlo simulations","volume":"1","author":"Cirauqui","year":"2024","journal-title":"APL Quantum"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012314","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.91.012314","article-title":"Strong Experimental Guarantees in Ultrafast Quantum Random Number Generation","volume":"91","author":"Mitchell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5538","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.383196","article-title":"Random Number Generation by Coherent Detection of Quantum Phase Noise","volume":"28","author":"Sarmiento","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2020.126736","article-title":"On-Chip Tunable SOI Interferometer for Quantum Random Number Generation Based on Phase Diffusion in Lasers","volume":"485","author":"Imran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/16\/11\/412\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:28:39Z","timestamp":1760113719000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/16\/11\/412"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["fi16110412"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi16110412","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]]}}}