{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T04:41:02Z","timestamp":1776228062184,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]],"date-time":"2025-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The evolving potential of virtual reality and the Metaverse to create immersive, engaging learning experiences and of digital escape room games to provide opportunities for active, autonomous, personalised learning has brought both to the forefront for educators seeking to transform traditional educational settings. This study investigated the impact of collaboration within a virtual reality serious escape room game in the Metaverse that was designed for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners to explore how this approach influences their academic performance and overall learning experience. A comparative research approach was adopted using twenty (n = 20) adult learners divided into two equal-sized groups; the experimental group completed the virtual reality escape room in pairs, while the control group completed it individually. Mixed methods were employed, utilising a pre- and post-test to measure academic performance, as well as a questionnaire and two focus groups to evaluate participants\u2019 learning experiences. Results indicated a trend of learners working collaboratively showing better learning outcomes and experience, offering valuable insights regarding the integration of serious Metaverse games in language-focused educational contexts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17010021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]],"date-time":"2025-01-06T10:40:52Z","timestamp":1736160052000},"page":"21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Collaboration in a Virtual Reality Serious Escape Room in the Metaverse Improves Academic Performance and Learners\u2019 Experiences"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Antonia-Maria","family":"Pazakou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 65404 Kavala, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9162-8340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stylianos","family":"Mystakidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 65404 Kavala, Greece"},{"name":"School of Natural Sciences, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7199-9945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioannis","family":"Kazanidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 65404 Kavala, Greece"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuhail, M.A., ElSayary, A., Farooq, S., and Alghamdi, A. (2022). Exploring Immersive Learning Experiences: A Survey. Informatics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics9040075"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandoval-Henr\u00edquez, F.J., S\u00e1ez-Delgado, F., and Badilla-Quintana, M.G. (2024). Systematic Review on the Integration of Immersive Technologies to Improve Learning in Primary Education. J. Comput. Educ.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40692-024-00318-x"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16041","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-11849-8","article-title":"The Use of Immersive Technologies in Distance Education: A Systematic Review","volume":"28","author":"Turan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.29140\/jaltcall.v16n3.388","article-title":"Virtual Reality in Education: The Promise, Progress, and Challenge","volume":"16","author":"Lege","year":"2020","journal-title":"JALT CALL J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1080\/08832323.2019.1703096","article-title":"An Application of Virtual Reality in Education: Can This Technology Enhance the Quality of Students\u2019 Learning Experience?","volume":"95","author":"McGovern","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Educ. Bus."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2022.100434","article-title":"Effects of Virtual Reality on Learning Outcomes in K-6 Education: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"35","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.22532","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review of the Effect of Virtual Reality Technology on Users\u2019 Learning Outcomes","volume":"30","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van der Meer, N., van der Werf, V., Brinkman, W.-P., and Specht, M. (2023). Virtual Reality and Collaborative Learning: A Systematic Literature Review. Front. Virtual Real., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2023.1159905"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2020.103254","article-title":"From BIM to Extended Reality in AEC Industry","volume":"116","author":"Alizadehsalehi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musa, M., Rahman, P., and Buhalis, D. (2022). Virtual Reality (VR) Types. Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, Edward Elgar.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781800377486.virtual.reality"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12368","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3241809","article-title":"Defining the Metaverse: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"11","author":"Ritterbusch","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, D., Huang, R., Metwally, A.H.S., Tlili, A., and Lin, E.F. (2024). Immersive Learning Design in the Metaverse: A Theoretical Literature Review Synthesis. Application of the Metaverse in Education, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-1298-4"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Nicholson, S. (2024, November 17). Peeking Behind the Locked Door: A Survey of Escape Room Facilities. Available online: http:\/\/scottnicholson.com\/pubs\/erfacwhite.pdf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yazdi, A., Karimi, A., and Mystakidis, S. (2024). Gamification in Online Education: A Visual Bibliometric Network Analysis. Information, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/info15020081"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Maher, K. (2022). Historical Escape Rooms: Unlocking the Potential for Communication and Collaboration in History Lessons. [Master\u2019s Thesis, National University of Ireland Maynooth]."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Elbaek, L., Majgaard, G., Valente, A., and Khalid, S. (2019). Escape Rooms for Learning: A Systematic Review. Proceedings of the European Conference on Games-Based Learning, Academic Conferences and Publishing International Limited."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/20004508.2020.1860284","article-title":"A Review on Use of Escape Rooms in Education\u2014Touching the Void","volume":"13","author":"Taraldsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Inq."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Tercanli, H., Martina, R., Ferreira Dias, M., Wakkee, I., Reuter, J., Amorim, M., Madaleno, M., Magueta, D., Vieira, E., and Veloso, C. (2021). Educational Escape Rooms in Practice: Research, Experiences, and Recommendations, Universidade de Aveiro."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2020.100364","article-title":"Escape Education: A Systematic Review on Escape Rooms in Education","volume":"31","author":"Veldkamp","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2023.10.602","article-title":"Application of Virtual Reality in Diverse Fields of Study in Education Sector: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"227","author":"Gunawan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103778","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Immersive Virtual Reality Applications for Higher Education: Design Elements, Lessons Learned, and Research Agenda","volume":"147","author":"Radianti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.5530\/jscires.10.1.10","article-title":"The Different Aspects of English Language Teaching and Learning: A Scientometric Analysis","volume":"10","author":"Arik","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Scientometr. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makri, A., Vlachopoulos, D., and Martina, R.A. (2021). Digital Escape Rooms as Innovative Pedagogical Tools in Education: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13084587"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darejeh, A. (2023, January 16\u201320). Empowering Education through EERP: A Customizable Educational VR Escape Room Platform. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR-Adjunct60411.2023.00166"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haramina, E., Paladin, M., Petri\u010du\u0161i\u0107, Z., Posari\u0107, F., Drobnjak, A., and Boti\u010dki, I. (2023, January 22\u201326). Learning Algorithms Concepts in a Virtual Reality Escape Room. Proceedings of the 2024 47th MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO), Opatija, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/MIPRO60963.2024.10569447"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Lee, S.-G., An, J., Chong, N.Y., Strand, M., and Kim, J.H. (2024). A Virtual Reality Escape Room Game for Learning Computer Architecture Concepts. Proceedings of the Intelligent Autonomous Systems 18, Springer Nature."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"113","article-title":"Access to Escape: Didactic Conception and Accessible Game Design of a VR-Escape Room for Accessibility Education","volume":"16","author":"Mateen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Bourguet, M.-L., Kr\u00fcger, J.M., Pedrosa, D., Dengel, A., Pe\u00f1a-Rios, A., and Richter, J. Access to Escape\u2014An Immersive Game-Based Learning Experience for Accessibility Education in Virtual Reality. Proceedings of the Immersive Learning Research Network."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2022.2079560","article-title":"Escaping the Cell: Virtual Reality Escape Rooms in Biology Education","volume":"42","author":"Christopoulos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mystakidis, S., Cachafeiro, E., and Hatzilygeroudis, I. (2019, January 15\u201317). Enter the Serious E-Scape Room: A Cost-Effective Serious Game Model for Deep and Meaningful E-Learning. Proceedings of the 2019 10th International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications (IISA), Patras, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IISA.2019.8900673"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Lopata, A., Butkien\u0117, R., Gudonien\u0117, D., and Sukack\u0117, V. Escape the Lab: Chemical Experiments in Virtual Reality. Proceedings of the Information and Software Technologies."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Low-Threshold Digital Educational Escape Rooms Based on 360VR and Web-Based Forms","volume":"22","author":"Wolf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Electron. J. E-Learn."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Staneva, A., Ivanova, T., Rasheva-Yordanova, K., and Borissova, D. (2023, January 22\u201326). Gamification in Education: Building an Escape Room Using VR Technologies. Proceedings of the 2023 46th MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO), Opatija, Croatia.","DOI":"10.23919\/MIPRO57284.2023.10159923"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbesser-Rastburg, G., Safikhani, S., Gustin, M., Hopfe, C., Schweiger, G., and Pirker, J. (2024, January 5\u20138). Project Beyond: An Escape Room Game in Virtual Reality to Teach Building Energy Simulations. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Conference on Games (CoG), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/CoG60054.2024.10645541"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeasmin, S., and Albabtain, L.A. (2020, January 17\u201319). Implementation of a Virtual Reality Escape Room Game. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Graphics and Multimedia (GAME), Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/GAME50158.2020.9315039"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Heredia Mart\u00edn, M. (2024). The Use of Digital Escape Rooms for Vocabulary Acquisition in the EFL Classroom. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya]."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Maroudi, K.M. (2022). Introducing Young Adult Literature in the EFL Classroom: A Proposal for the Digital Age. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"e1511","article-title":"Slave Away or Get Away: Escape Rooms as a Motivational Tool for the CLIL History Classroom in Higher Education","volume":"15","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lat. Am. J. Content Lang. Integr. Learn."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Rosseli, R. (2023). Digital Escape Room as a Tool to Teach Grammar. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Agder]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Voreopoulou, A., Mystakidis, S., and Tsinakos, A. (2024). Augmented Reality Escape Classroom Game for Deep and Meaningful English Language Learning. Computers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers13010024"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno-Reyes, J.M., Alejos, D.J., Siefker, D., and Mart\u00ednez-Meza, R. (2022). 360 virtual tour and escape room design as a video games-based learning process for diagnosis and strengthening of the English language. Rev. Tecnol. Inform\u00e1tica, 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.35429\/JCT.2022.16.6.1.14"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Senkbeil, K., Martin, G., and O\u2019Rourke, B. (2022). SpEakWise VR: Exploring the Use of Social Virtual Reality in Telecollaborative Foreign Language Learning between Learners of English and German, Research-Publishing.","DOI":"10.14705\/rpnet.2022.61.1483"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Anikina, Z. (2020). Tandem Language Learning as a Tool for International Students Sociocultural Adaptation. Proceedings of the Integrating Engineering Education and Humanities for Global Intercultural Perspectives, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Ioannou, A., Lemonari, M., Liarokapis, F., and Aristidou, A. (2023, January 5\u20136). Collaborative VR: Solving Riddles in the Concept of Escape Rooms. Proceedings of the International Conference on Interactive Media, Smart Systems and Emerging Technologies (IMET), Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"de Blecourt, M. (2022). The Impact of Virtual Reality on Social Processes in Escape Rooms. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Utrecht University]."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2024.102348","article-title":"Perceptions of Pre-Service Teachers While Developing a Virtual Educational Escape Room (VEER) Using Online Collaborative Learning","volume":"125","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2020.1752735","article-title":"The Impact of a Virtual Reality App on Adolescent EFL Learners\u2019 Vocabulary Learning","volume":"35","author":"Tai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez Aldeguer, S., and Akombo, D.O. (2019). The Use of Escape Rooms to Teach and Learn English at University. Research, Technology and Best Practices in Education, Adaya Press."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Boykov, V., and Goceva, M. (2019). Formal, Non-Formal and Informal Education. Knowl.\u2013Int. J., 35."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fotaris, P., and Mastoras, T. (2022). Room2Educ8: A Framework for Creating Educational Escape Rooms Based on Design Thinking Principles. Educ. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci12110768"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Bybee, R., Taylor, J., Gardner, A., Scotter, P., Carlson, J., Westbrook, A., and Landes, N. (2006). The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: Origins, Effectiveness, and Applications, BSCS."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Ikram, G., and Amira, A. (2023). Investigating EFL Teachers\u2019 Attitudes Towards the Use of the 5Es Model. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Guelma University]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1080\/15391523.2021.1962455","article-title":"Enhancing 21st-Century Competencies via Virtual Reality Digital Content Creation","volume":"55","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Res. Technol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nepr.2023.103828","article-title":"Facilitating Undergraduate Students\u2019 Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking Competence via Online Escape Room Learning","volume":"73","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nurse Educ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2024, September 07). Test Your English|Cambridge English. Available online: https:\/\/www.cambridgeenglish.org\/test-your-english\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Miri, S.M., and Shahrokh, D.Z. (2019). A Short Introduction to Comparative Research, Allameh Tabataba\u2019i University."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Paolis, L.T., and Bourdot, P. (2020). Collaboration in Virtual and Augmented Reality: A Systematic Overview. Proceedings of the Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, and Computer Graphics, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-58468-9"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.15421\/192119","article-title":"Review and Comparison of MultiMethod and Mixed Method Application in Research Studies","volume":"29","author":"Ramakrishnan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Manag. Issues"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2010.06.006","article-title":"How Does Desktop Virtual Reality Enhance Learning Outcomes? A Structural Equation Modeling Approach","volume":"55","author":"Wong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krueger, R.A. (1998). Developing Questions for Focus Groups, Focus Group Kit; SAGE Publications, Inc.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483328126"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.30862\/jri.v2i1.41","article-title":"Strategies for Meaningful Learning in Higher Education","volume":"2","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Res. Instr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.32996\/ijls.2023.3.3.2","article-title":"A Review Study on the Impact of Online Collaborative Learning on EFL Students\u2019 Writing Skills","volume":"3","author":"Mudhsh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Linguist. Stud."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.12928\/eltej.v5i1.5822","article-title":"Collaborative Learning and Classroom Engagement: A Pedagogical Experience in an EFL Chilean Context","volume":"5","year":"2022","journal-title":"Engl. Lang. Teach. Educ. J."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1026","article-title":"Effectiveness of Collaborative Learning as a Strategy in the Teaching of EFL","volume":"35","author":"Alahdal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opci\u00f3n"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.36892\/ijlls.v6i2.1649","article-title":"Conceptual Review: Cultivating Learner Autonomy Through Self-Directed Learning & Self-Regulated Learning: A Socio-Constructivist Exploration","volume":"6","author":"Kharroubi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Lit. Stud."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12885","article-title":"The Effect of Virtual Reality Learning on Students\u2019 Motivation: A Scoping Review","volume":"40","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Assist. Learn."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/1\/21\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:23:52Z","timestamp":1759919032000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/1\/21"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["fi17010021"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi17010021","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]]}}}