{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T15:50:17Z","timestamp":1774021817995,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745884800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101096456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101096456"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a secure 5G offloading mechanism leveraging Blockchain technology and Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI). The advent of 5G has significantly enhanced the capabilities of all sectors, enabling innovative applications and improving security and efficiency. However, challenges such as limited infrastructure, signal interference, and high upgrade costs persist. Offloading processes already address these issues but they require more transparency and security. This paper proposes a Blockchain-based marketplace using Hyperledger Fabric to optimize resource allocation and enhance security. This marketplace facilitates the exchange of services and resources among operators, promoting competition and flexibility. Additionally, the paper introduces an SSI-based authentication system to ensure privacy and security during the offloading process. The architecture and components of the marketplace and authentication system are detailed, along with their data models and operations. Performance evaluations indicate that the proposed solutions do not significantly degrade offloading times, making them suitable for everyday applications. As a result, the integration of Blockchain and SSI technologies enhances the security and efficiency of 5G offloading.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17050197","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T11:00:54Z","timestamp":1745924454000},"page":"197","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Leveraging Blockchain Technology for Secure 5G Offloading Processes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6031-9449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Regueiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tecnalia Research & Innovation, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2, 20009 Donostia-San Sebasti\u00e1n, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8823-7509","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santiago","family":"de Diego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tecnalia Research & Innovation, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2, 20009 Donostia-San Sebasti\u00e1n, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9751-757X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Borja","family":"Urkizu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tecnalia Research & Innovation, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2, 20009 Donostia-San Sebasti\u00e1n, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Suffredini, G. (2020). Smart Cities as Ecosystems-What Will Be the Impact of 5G?. [Master Thesis, University of Gothenburg]. Available online: https:\/\/gupea.ub.gu.se\/bitstream\/handle\/2077\/65782\/gupea_2077_65782_1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"421","article-title":"Comparative studies of 3G, 4G & 5G mobile network & data offloading method a survey","volume":"3","author":"Majeed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.58496\/BJN\/2023\/006","article-title":"Difference Between 4G and 5G Networks","volume":"2023","author":"Salman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Babylon. J. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gohar, A., and Nencioni, G. (2021). The role of 5G technologies in a smart city: The case for intelligent transportation system. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13095188"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"200065","article-title":"Using 5G in smart cities: A systematic mapping study","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Intell. Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2987","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3139436","article-title":"5G networks towards smart and sustainable cities: A review of recent developments, applications and future perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Shehab","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chrysikos, T., Gourna, S., and Skouroliakou, A. (2023). RF Coverage Design for the Implementation of a Broadband Monitoring Service in the Context of 5G-Enabled Smart Cities. Information, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/info14030156"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sudhamani, C., Roslee, M., Tiang, J.J., and Rehman, A.U. (2023). A survey on 5G coverage improvement techniques: Issues and future challenges. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23042356"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elgendi, I., Munasinghe, K.S., and Jamalipour, A. (2017, January 1\u20134). Traffic offloading for 5G: L-LTE or Wi-Fi. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2017.8116470"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damigos, G., Lindgren, T., Sandberg, S., and Nikolakopoulos, G. (2023). Performance of sensor data process offloading on 5g-enabled uavs. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020864"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1601224","article-title":"Data offloading in 5G-enabled software-defined vehicular networks: A Stackelberg-game-based approach","volume":"55","author":"Aujla","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"101628","article-title":"Energy-efficient task offloading in fog computing for 5G cellular network","volume":"50","author":"Muhamad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Ebrahimi, A., and Afghah, F. (2025). Intelligent Task Offloading: Advanced MEC Task Offloading and Resource Management in 5G Networks. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900140","article-title":"Data security and privacy challenges of computing offloading in FINs","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2022.103395","article-title":"A survey of privacy-preserving offloading methods in mobile-edge computing","volume":"203","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, J., Xu, W., and Cai, Y. (2024, January 21\u201324). Task Offloading and Resource Allocation with Reliability Guarantee in 5G-WiFi Heterogeneous Networks. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC57260.2024.10570936"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouras, C., Kollia, A., and Papazois, A. (2017, January 7\u20139). SDN & NFV in 5G: Advancements and challenges. Proceedings of the 2017 20th Conference on Innovations in Clouds, Internet and Networks (ICIN), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIN.2017.7899398"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2019.2951169","article-title":"SDN\/NFV-empowered future IoV with enhanced communication, computing, and caching","volume":"108","author":"Zhuang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6353","DOI":"10.35940\/ijrte.B2203.078219","article-title":"SDN Based Data Offloading and Load Balancing Techniques for Applications in 5G","volume":"8","author":"Shilpa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Recent Technol. Eng. (IJRTE)"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5101","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2799546","article-title":"A survey on mobile data offloading technologies","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2198","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2808242","article-title":"A survey of opportunistic offloading","volume":"20","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1007\/s12243-016-0544-5","article-title":"Traffic offloading techniques for 5G cellular: A three-tiered SDN architecture","volume":"71","author":"Elgendi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liyanage, M., Dananjaya, M., Okwuibe, J., and Ylianttila, M. (2017, January 12\u201314). SDN based operator assisted offloading platform for multi-controller 5G networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Local and Metropolitan Area Networks (LANMAN), Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/LANMAN.2017.7972134"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paris, S., Martisnon, F., Filippini, I., Chen, L., and Martignon, F. (2013, January 14\u201319). A bandwidth trading marketplace for mobile data offloading. Proceedings of the 2013 Proceedings IEEE INFOCOM, Turin, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2013.6566809"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, L., Iosifidis, G., Huang, J., and Tassiulas, L. (2013, January 14\u201319). Economics of mobile data offloading. Proceedings of the 2013 Proceedings IEEE INFOCOM, Turin, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2013.6567155"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramachandran, G.S., Radhakrishnan, R., and Krishnamachari, B. (2018, January 16\u201319). Towards a decentralized data marketplace for smart cities. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2), Kansas City, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISC2.2018.8656952"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljohani, M., Mukkamala, R., Olariu, S., Kalari, S., and Sunkara, M. (2024, January 26\u201329). SmartReview: A Blockchain-based Transaction Review System for Decentralized Marketplaces. Proceedings of the 2024 6th International Conference on Blockchain Computing and Applications (BCCA), Dubai, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/BCCA62388.2024.10844485"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christidis, J., Karkazis, P.A., Papadopoulos, P., and Leligou, H.C. (2022). Decentralized blockchain-based iot data marketplaces. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan11030039"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qureshi, M.B., Qureshi, M.S., Tahir, S., Anwar, A., Hussain, S., Uddin, M., and Chen, C.L. (2022). Encryption techniques for smart systems data security offloaded to the cloud. Symmetry, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym14040695"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"081301","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-017-9426-4","article-title":"Overview of 5G security technology","volume":"61","author":"Ji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. China Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basin, D., Dreier, J., Hirschi, L., Radomirovic, S., Sasse, R., and Stettler, V. (2018, January 15\u201319). A formal analysis of 5G authentication. Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3243734.3243846"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.33093\/jetap.2022.4.1.3","article-title":"Authentication for 5G Mobile Wireless Networks","volume":"4","author":"Dwiputriane","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Eng. Technol. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"DIF\u2014Decentralized Identity Foundation (2025, January 20). Principles and Characteristics of Self Sovereign Identity. Available online: https:\/\/decentralized-id.com\/self-sovereign-identity\/characteristics\/."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1109\/MCSE.2017.3421554","article-title":"What is the blockchain?","volume":"19","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kodra, F., and Cangu, B. (2025). Blockchain Revolution in Accounting: Transparency, Efficiency, and Costs. IJAME, 1, Available online: https:\/\/app.ijame.org\/index.php\/v1\/article\/view\/5."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.58496\/MJCS\/2025\/006","article-title":"Exploring the Impact of Blockchain Revolution on the Healthcare Ecosystem: A Critical Review","volume":"5","author":"Mijwil","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadam, S., Senta, R., Sah, R.K., Sawant, A., and Jain, S. (2024, January 5\u20137). Blockchain revolution: A new horizon for supply chain management in hotel industry. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Emerging Smart Computing and Informatics (ESCI), Pune, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESCI59607.2024.10497236"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"10-30953","article-title":"From sharing to selling: Challenges and opportunities of establishing a digital health data marketplace using blockchain technologies","volume":"5","author":"Maher","year":"2022","journal-title":"Blockchain Healthc. Today"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3523","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-022-03745-6","article-title":"A blockchain-based IoT data marketplace","volume":"26","author":"Sober","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1111\/poms.13657","article-title":"Implications of blockchain-powered marketplace of preowned virtual goods","volume":"33","author":"Tan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prod. Oper. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taherdoost, H. (2023). Smart contracts in blockchain technology: A critical review. Information, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/info14020117"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dolhopolov, A., Castelltort, A., and Laurent, A. (2023, January 5\u20137). Exploring the benefits of blockchain-powered metadata catalogs in data mesh architecture. Proceedings of the International Conference on Management of Digital, Heraklion, Greece.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-51643-6_3"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csa.2023.100015","article-title":"Securing distributed systems: A survey on access control techniques for cloud, blockchain, IoT and SDN","volume":"1","author":"Golightly","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cyber Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.102147","article-title":"A tree structure-based improved blockchain framework for a secure online bidding system","volume":"102","author":"Sarfaraz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yakubu, B.M., Ahmad, M.M., Sulaiman, A.B., Kazaure, A.S., Khan, M.I., and Javaid, N. (2021, January 15\u201316). Blockchain based smart marketplace for secure internet bandwidth trading. Proceedings of the 2021 1st International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Science (ICMEAS), Abuja, Nigeria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMEAS52683.2021.9692424"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90084","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3420720","article-title":"Blockchain-empowered resource trading for optimizing bandwidth reservation in vehicular networks","volume":"12","author":"Hadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87602","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3199369","article-title":"FedMarket: A cryptocurrency driven marketplace for mobile federated learning services","volume":"10","author":"Yousafzai","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2021.3123680","article-title":"A survey on blockchain-based telecommunication services marketplaces","volume":"19","author":"Tkachuk","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernando, P., Gunawardhana, L., Rajapakshe, W., Dananjaya, M., Gamage, T., and Liyanage, M. (2020, January 7\u201311). Blockchain-Based Wi-Fi Offloading Platform for 5G. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCWorkshops49005.2020.9145369"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohan, C. (July, January 30). State of public and private blockchains: Myths and reality. Proceedings of the 2019 international Conference on Management of Data, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1145\/3299869.3314116"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Androulaki, E., Barger, A., Bortnikov, V., Cachin, C., Christidis, K., De Caro, A., Enyeart, D., Ferris, C., Laventman, G., and Manevich, Y. (2018, January 23\u201326). Hyperledger fabric: A distributed operating system for permissioned blockchains. Proceedings of the Thirteenth EuroSys Conference, Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1145\/3190508.3190538"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohanty, D. (2019). R3 Corda for Architects and Developers: With Case Studies in Finance, Insurance, Healthcare, Travel, Telecom, and Agriculture, Apress.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4842-4529-3"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melissari, F., Papadakis, A., Chatzitheodorou, D., Tran, D., Schouteten, J., Athanasiou, G., and Zahariadis, T. (2024). Experiences using ethereum and quorum blockchain smart contracts in dairy production. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan13010006"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"100113","article-title":"Comparative analysis of permissioned blockchain frameworks for industrial applications","volume":"4","author":"Capocasale","year":"2023","journal-title":"Blockchain: Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2024.101217","article-title":"Latency performance modelling in hyperledger fabric blockchain: Challenges and directions with an IoT perspective","volume":"26","author":"Abang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, D., Wong, W.E., and Guo, J. (2020, January 3\u20136). A survey on blockchain for enterprise using hyperledger fabric and composer. Proceedings of the 2019 6th International Conference on Dependable Systems and Their Applications (DSA), Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSA.2019.00017"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Vera-Rivera, A., and Hossain, E. (2025). Decentralizing Trust: Consortium Blockchains and Hyperledger Fabric Explained. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3682","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2916180","article-title":"Security for 5G and beyond","volume":"21","author":"Ahmad","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1109\/Trustcom.2015.499","article-title":"Towards 5G security","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Schneider","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Trustcom\/BigDataSE\/ISPA"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Javed, M.A., and khan Niazi, S. (2019, January 20\u201321). 5G security artifacts (DoS\/DDoS and authentication). Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Communication Technologies (ComTech), Rawalpindi, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMTECH.2019.8737800"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"3Gpp (2025, April 01). Technical Specification Group Services and System Aspects, Release 15. Available online: https:\/\/portal.3gpp.org\/desktopmodules\/Specifications\/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3144."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"You, I., Kim, G., Shin, S., Kwon, H., Kim, J., and Baek, J. (2024). 5G-AKA-FS: A 5G Authentication and Key Agreement Protocol for Forward Secrecy. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24010159"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, S., Parne, B.L., and Chaudhari, N.S. (2018, January 15\u201317). Security vulnerabilities in handover authentication mechanism of 5G network. Proceedings of the 2018 First International Conference on Secure Cyber Computing and Communication (ICSCCC), Jalandhar, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSCCC.2018.8703355"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ko, Y., Pawana, I.W.A.J., and You, I. (2024). Formal Security Reassessment of the 5G-AKA-FS Protocol: Methodological Corrections and Augmented Verification Techniques. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24247979"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, Y., and Wu, Y. (2022). 5g-ipaka: An improved primary authentication and key agreement protocol for 5g networks. Information, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/info13030125"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"K\u00f8ien, G.M. (2020). The SUCI-AKA Authentication Protocol for 5G Systems. Norsk IKT-Konferanse for Forskning og Utdanning, NIKT. Available online: https:\/\/www.ntnu.no\/ojs\/index.php\/nikt\/article\/view\/5550\/5022."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2024.3388467","article-title":"A Secure Authentication Protocol for IoT-WLAN Using EAP Framework","volume":"22","author":"Yadav","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.59543\/ijmscs.v2i.9073","article-title":"Enhancing Wireless Security and Privacy: A 2-Way Identity Authentication Method for 5G Networks","volume":"2","author":"Dawar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Math. Stat. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.001.1900054","article-title":"Machine learning for intelligent authentication in 5G and beyond wireless networks","volume":"26","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Wang, C., Zou, X., and Wang, S. (2023, January 16\u201318). A Secure and Effective Authentication Method in 5G. Proceedings of the 2023 4th International Seminar on Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Information Technology (AINIT), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINIT59027.2023.10212595"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, N.A. (2022, January 12\u201313). PKI-Based security enhancement for IoT in 5G networks. Proceedings of the Inventive Computation and Information Technologies: Proceedings of ICICIT 2021, Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-6723-7_16"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boubakri, W., Abdallah, W., and Boudriga, N. (2017, January 26\u201330). Access control in 5G communication networks using simple PKI certificates. Proceedings of the 2017 13th International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing Conference (IWCMC), Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWCMC.2017.7986606"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-024-04880-1","article-title":"Secure and effective authentication for 5G networks (SEA-5G) using blockchain","volume":"16","author":"Bala","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Ambient. Intell. Humaniz. Comput."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.31585\/jbba-4-1-(5)2021","article-title":"Identity of things: Applying concepts from self sovereign identity to IoT devices","volume":"4","author":"Weingaertner","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Br. Blockchain Assoc."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159965","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3131012","article-title":"Enabling identity for the IoT-as-a-service business model","volume":"9","author":"Regueiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8823573","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8823573","article-title":"SANS: Self-Sovereign Authentication for Network Slices","volume":"2020","author":"Salleras","year":"2020","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fiege, U., Fiat, A., and Shamir, A. (1987, January 25\u201327). Zero knowledge proofs of identity. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/28395.28419"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, W., Nokhbeh Zaeem, R., Liau, D., Chang, K.C., Lamison, M.R., Khalil, M.M., and Barber, K.S. (2021, January 14\u201317). Self-sovereign identity and user control for privacy-preserving contact tracing. Proceedings of the IEEE\/WIC\/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence and Intelligent Agent Technology, Melbourne, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3486622.3493914"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foytik, P., Bouk, S.H., Anderson, G., and Shetty, S. (2024, January 6\u20139). Self-Sovereign Identity Management in Ship-Based 5G-Devices Use Case. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 21st Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCNC51664.2024.10454874"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2317","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-021-03461-7","article-title":"Cloud to cloud data migration using self sovereign identity for 5G and beyond","volume":"25","author":"Aruna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00fcpper, A. (2021, January 23\u201326). Decentralized identifiers and self-sovereign identity-a new identity management for 6G integration?: Mobilecloud 2021 invited talk. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Joint Cloud Computing (JCC), Oxford, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/JCC53141.2021.00023"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Reed, D., Sporny, M., Longley, D., Allen, C., Grant, R., Sabadello, M., and Holt, J. (2025, April 01). Decentralized Identifiers (dids) v1.0. Draft Community Group Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/2020\/WD-did-core-20201108\/."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lage, O., de Diego, S., Urkizu, B., G\u00f3mez, E., and Guti\u00e9rrez, I. (2019). Blockchain applications in cybersecurity. Computer Security Threats, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.90061"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"World Wide Web Consortium (2025, January 20). Verifiable Credentials Data Model 2.0. Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/vc-data-model-2.0\/."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gebresilassie, S.K., Rafferty, J., Morrow, P., Chen, L.L., Abu-Tair, M., and Cui, Z. (2020, January 2\u201316). Distributed, Secure, Self-Sovereign Identity for IoT Devices. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 6th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT48130.2020.9221144"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahalle, P.N., Shinde, G., and Shafi, P.M. (2020). Rethinking decentralised identifiers and verifiable credentials for the Internet of Things. Internet of Things, Smart Computing and Technology: A Roadmap Ahead, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-39047-1_16"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2025, January 20). Hyperledger Aries. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/hyperledger\/aries."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2025, April 22). Veramo\u2014Performant and Modular APIs for Verifiable Data and SSI. Available online: https:\/\/veramo.io\/."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Ali, M., Shea, R., Nelson, J., and Freedman, M.J. (2017). Blockstack Technical Whitepaper, Blockstack PBC."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"(2025, April 22). Veres One\u2014A Globally Interoperable Blockchain for Identity. Available online: https:\/\/veres.one\/."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2025, April 22). Jolocom\u2014A Decentralized, Open Source Solution for Digital Identity and Access Management. Available online: https:\/\/www.alchemy.com\/dapps\/jolocom."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2025, January 20). Hyperledger Indy. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/hyperledger\/indy-sdk."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"(2025, January 20). Hyperledger Aries Cloud Agent. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/hyperledger\/aries-cloudagent-python."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOMSTD.001.1900029","article-title":"The trust over ip stack","volume":"3","author":"Davie","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Stand. Mag."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Curren, S., Looker, T., and Terbu, O. (2025, January 20). DIDComm Messaging v2.x Editor\u2019s Draft. Available online: https:\/\/identity.foundation\/didcomm-messaging\/spec\/."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamil, F., Cheikhrouhou, O., Jamil, H., Koubaa, A., Derhab, A., and Ferrag, M.A. (2021). PetroBlock: A blockchain-based payment mechanism for fueling smart vehicles. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11073055"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103411","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3208688","article-title":"Survey on blockchain-based IoT payment and marketplaces","volume":"10","author":"Saputhanthri","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Alotaibi, F., Hosny, S., Tadrous, J., Gamal, H.E., and Eryilmaz, A. (2015). Towards a marketplace for mobile content: Dynamic pricing and proactive caching. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2020.101971","article-title":"Blockchain-based event processing in supply chains\u2014A case study at IKEA","volume":"65","author":"Sund","year":"2020","journal-title":"Robot. -Comput.-Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2019.12.003","article-title":"Dynamic pricing techniques for Intelligent Transportation System in smart cities: A systematic review","volume":"150","author":"Saharan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3567582","article-title":"Connect API with blockchain: A survey on blockchain oracle implementation","volume":"55","author":"Pasdar","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boi, B., De Santis, M., and Esposito, C. (2023, January 10\u201312). Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI) Attribute-Based Web Authentication. Proceedings of the SECRYPT, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.5220\/0012121400003555"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Montero, F., Ram\u00f3n, H.D., and Pousa, A. (2024, January 25\u201327). Self-sovereign Identity Model in a Higher Education Institution. Proceedings of the XII Jornadas de Cloud Computing, Big Data & Emerging Topics, La Plata, Argentina."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2847733","article-title":"The effect of IoT new features on security and privacy: New threats, existing solutions, and challenges yet to be solved","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"8706760","article-title":"Improving the privacy of IoT with decentralised identifiers (DIDs)","volume":"2019","author":"Kortesniemi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Comput. Netw. Commun."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Berzin, O., Ansay, R., Kempf, J., Sheikh, I., and Hendel, D. (2024, March 24). The IoT Exchange. Available online: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2103.12131."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stokkink, Q., and Pouwelse, J. (August, January 30). Deployment of a blockchain-based self-sovereign identity. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), Halifax, NS, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/Cybermatics_2018.2018.00230"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siqueira, A., Da Concei\u00e7\u00e3o, A.F., and Rocha, V. (2023, January 17\u201320). Performance Evaluation of Self-Sovereign Identity Use Cases. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Decentralized Applications and Infrastructures (DAPPS), Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/DAPPS57946.2023.00026"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.11591\/eei.v13i3.4506","article-title":"Development of Arduino applications for IoT applications in software engineering education: A systematic literature review","volume":"13","author":"Yusop","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bull. Electr. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"(2025, April 01). Hyperledger Fabric v2.4.8 Release Notes. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/hyperledger\/fabric\/releases\/tag\/v2.4.8."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1145\/155870.155881","article-title":"GRPC: A communication cooperation mechanism in distributed systems","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"1993","journal-title":"ACM SIGOPS Oper. Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"2350","article-title":"A Comparative Study of Arduino, Raspberry Pi and ESP8266 as IoT Development Board","volume":"8","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, N.S., Vuayalakshmi, B., Prarthana, R.J., and Shankar, A. (2016, January 22\u201325). IOT based smart garbage alert system using Arduino UNO. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE region 10 conference (TENCON), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCON.2016.7848162"},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"1357","article-title":"Smart home automation and security system using Arduino and IOT","volume":"5","author":"Wadhwani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET)"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Diego, S., Regueiro, C., and Maci\u00e1-Fern\u00e1ndez, G. (2024, January 26\u201328). An Authentication System Based on Self-sovereign Identity for Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Communications. Proceedings of the International Congress on Blockchain and Applications, Salamanca, Spain.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-81928-5_2"}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/5\/197\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:24:18Z","timestamp":1760030658000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/5\/197"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["fi17050197"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi17050197","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]}}}