{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T18:15:52Z","timestamp":1775326552099,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009392","name":"Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PSAU\/2024\/01\/28710"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PSAU\/2024\/01\/28710"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009392","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Future Internet"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The integration of autonomous vehicles (AVs) into urban transportation systems has significant potential to enhance traffic efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. This study evaluates the impact of different AV penetration scenarios (0%, 10%, 30%, 50%) on traffic performance and carbon emissions along Prince Mohammed bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Road in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Using microscopic simulation (SUMO) based on real-world datasets, we assess key performance indicators such as travel time, stop frequency, speed, and CO2 emissions. Results indicate notable improvements with increasing AV deployment, including up to 25.5% reduced travel time and 14.6% lower emissions at 50% AV penetration. Coordinated AV behavior was approximated using adjusted simulation parameters and Python-based APIs, effectively modeling vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle-to-network (V2N) communications. These findings highlight the benefits of harmonized AV\u2013human vehicle interactions, providing a scalable and data-driven framework applicable to smart urban mobility planning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17080342","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T10:55:37Z","timestamp":1753872937000},"page":"342","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Harmonized Autonomous\u2013Human Vehicles via Simulation for Emissions Reduction in Riyadh City"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7088-3919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Louati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Systems, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hassen","family":"Louati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Technology, Kingdom University, Riffa 40434, Bahrain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3226-6412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elham","family":"Kariri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Systems, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simpat.2021.102374","article-title":"Impact of connected and autonomous vehicles on traffic efficiency and safety of an on-ramp","volume":"113","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Simul. Model. Pract. Theory"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Codeca, L., Frank, R., and Engel, T. (2015, January 16\u201318). Luxembourg sumo traffic (lust) scenario: 24 hours of mobility for vehicular networking research. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/VNC.2015.7385539"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2024.104542","article-title":"Environmental impact estimation of mixed traffic flow involving CAVs and Human-driven vehicles considering the non-equilibrium state","volume":"161","author":"Ge","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi\u011fit, Y., and Karabatak, M. (2025). A Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Speed Optimization System to Reduce Fuel Consumption and Emissions for Smart Cities. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15031545"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"11449","article-title":"A review on energy, environmental, and sustainability implications of connected and automated vehicles","volume":"52","author":"Taiebat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kathiresan, K., Yuvaraj, N., Sri, P.K., and Jeon, S. (2024). Deep Learning Models for Urban Aerial Mobility: A Review. Urban Air Mobility, River Publishers.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003339953-5"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2024.07.003","article-title":"Sustainable Mobility Guarantee: Developing the concept from a transport planning perspective","volume":"155","author":"Shibayama","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braidy, A., Pokharel, S., and ElMekkawy, T.Y. (2025). Research Perspectives on Innovation in the Automotive Sector. Sustainability, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/su17072795"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, Z., Zhao, J., Xu, Y., and Tsourdos, A. (2024, January 2\u20139). A co-simulation digital twin with SUMO and AirSim for testing lane-based UTM system concept. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO58975.2024.10521156"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4823481","DOI":"10.1155\/emmi\/4823481","article-title":"Design of a SUMO-Based Simulator for Optimal Location of Emergency Vehicles in the Emergency Medical Systems","volume":"2025","author":"Tozan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.116233","article-title":"Measurement and analysis of heterogeneous road transport parameters using Smart Traffic Analyzer and SUMO Simulator: An experimental approach","volume":"242","author":"Ravindran","year":"2025","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chah, B., Lombard, A., Mualla, Y., Bkakria, A., Abbas-Turki, A., and Yaich, R. (2024, January 10\u201312). Building a Database of Simulated Driver Behaviors Using the SUMO Simulator. Proceedings of the Intelligent Systems Conference, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-66428-1_34"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schreiber, J. (2025). Tomtom-lite: Accelerating Tomtom enables large-scale and real-time motif similarity scoring. bioRxiv, 2025-05.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.05.27.656386"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"185","article-title":"A review of third-party traffic data for public and private use: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"65","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Transp. Stud."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2023.106883","article-title":"Cloud-assisted collaborative estimation for next-generation automobile sensing","volume":"126","author":"Louati","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sftr.2024.100407","article-title":"Machine learning framework for sustainable traffic management and safety in AlKharj city","volume":"9","author":"Louati","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Futur."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Ma, J., and Lai, E.M. (2024). A Survey of Scenario Generation for Automated Vehicle Testing and Validation. Future Internet, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16120480"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gegov, A., Vatchova, B., Boneva, Y., and Ichtev, A. (2025). Heuristic Fuzzy Approach to Traffic Flow Modelling and Control on Urban Networks. Future Internet, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17050227"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, M., Signoretti, G., Oliveira, J., Silva, I., and Costa, D.G. (2019). A crowdsensing platform for monitoring of vehicular emissions: A smart city perspective. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11010013"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louati, A., Louati, H., Kariri, E., Neifar, W., Hassan, M.K., and Khairi, M.H.H. (2024). Sustainable Smart Cities through Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning-Based Cooperative Autonomous Vehicles. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16051779"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louati, A., Louati, H., Alharbi, M., Kariri, E., Khawaji, T., Almubaddil, Y., and Aldwsary, S. (2024). Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence for a Sustainable Tourism: A Case Study on Saudi Arabia. Information, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/info15090516"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"4449","article-title":"Public attitudes toward autonomous vehicles: Evidence from an urban context in the Middle East","volume":"45","author":"Haboucha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lee, M.K., Kim, D., Forlizzi, J., and Kiesler, S. (2019, January 17\u201320). Understanding People\u2019s Perception of Autonomous Systems: A Field Study. Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Marina del Ray, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"85","article-title":"A survey on public perceptions of autonomous vehicles: Comparing across age, education, and experience","volume":"2677","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."}],"container-title":["Future Internet"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/8\/342\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:18:43Z","timestamp":1760033923000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/17\/8\/342"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["fi17080342"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi17080342","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-5903"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-5903","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]]}}}