{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T22:21:03Z","timestamp":1778883663993,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]],"date-time":"2021-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1619049600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geo-environmental factors are believed to be major determinants of rural poverty. However, few studies have quantified the effects of these factors on rural poverty in China. In this paper, we used county-level poverty incidence data and geo-environmental factors to explore spatial patterns of the incidence of poverty using global and local spatial autocorrelation analysis and to investigate the effect of geo-environment factors on rural poverty using a geo-detector model. Our results demonstrated that there was spatial clustering of the incidence of poverty in the study area. The incidence of poverty decreased from south to north and from the east and west to the central area. The incidence of high\u2013high poverty areas was mainly distributed in the southeast of Guizhou Province and the incidence of low\u2013low poverty areas was distributed in the northeast. The results also demonstrated that percentage of effective irrigation on arable land, slope, elevation and vegetation cover were the dominant factors explaining the spatial pattern of poverty. Interaction analysis demonstrated that the slope non-linearly enhanced the percentage of effective irrigation on arable land. Our findings suggested that geo-environment is the fundamental control factor explaining the spatial pattern of rural poverty in China. Through analysis of the impact of the geo-environment on the spatial pattern of poverty, this study provides a reference for effectively implementing targeted alleviation of poverty.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10050270","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]],"date-time":"2021-04-22T04:20:17Z","timestamp":1619065217000},"page":"270","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Understanding the Relationship between Dominant Geo-Environmental Factors and Rural Poverty in Guizhou, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Yong","family":"Ge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1766-2820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhoupeng","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yangyang","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1232491","article-title":"On the psychology of poverty","volume":"344","author":"Haushofer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1038\/524150a","article-title":"Can randomized trials eliminate global poverty?","volume":"524","author":"Tollefson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. News"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160690","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0690","article-title":"Mapping poverty using mobile phone and satellite data","volume":"14","author":"Steele","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Guo, Y., Zhou, Y., and Liu, Y. (2019). Targeted poverty alleviation and its practices in rural China: A case study of Fuping county, Hebei Province. J. Rural Stud."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2008.06.001","article-title":"Are there lessons for Africa from China\u2019s success against poverty?","volume":"37","author":"Ravallion","year":"2009","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"320","article-title":"Study on Implementation of Targeted Poverty Alleviation and Regional Coordinated Development","volume":"31","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"2","article-title":"China\u2019s relative poverty standards, measurement and targeting after the completion of building a moderately prosperous society in an all-round way: An analysis based on data from China urban and rural household survey in 2018","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. Rural Econ."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"5","article-title":"Study on Precision Poverty Alleviation Strategy Characteristics of Poverty Stricken Areas in Heilongjiang Province","volume":"6","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. Econ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrurstud.2015.01.004","article-title":"Spatio-temporal pattern of China\u2019s rural development: A rurality index perspective","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Rural Stud."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1108\/17504971311328044","article-title":"Global inequality and poverty in perspectives of geography","volume":"7","author":"Altmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Multicult. Educt. Technol. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1002\/jae.645","article-title":"Geographic poverty traps? A micro model of consumption growth in rural China","volume":"17","author":"Jalan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Econom."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1002\/jid.2861","article-title":"Poor countries or poor people? Development assistance and the new geography of global poverty","volume":"24","author":"Kanbur","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Int. Dev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2019.102086","article-title":"The nexus between regional eco-environmental degradation and rural impoverishment in China","volume":"96","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16769","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0611107104","article-title":"Spatial determinants of poverty in rural Kenya","volume":"104","author":"Okwi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-018-1953-9","article-title":"Identifying the Geographic Indicators of Poverty Using Geographically Weighted Regression: A Case Study from Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou, China","volume":"142","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc. Indic. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"322","article-title":"Investigating rural poverty and marginality in Burkina Faso using remote sensing-based products","volume":"26","author":"Imran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2013.07.023","article-title":"Predicting socioeconomic conditions from satellite sensor data in rural developing countries: A case study using female literacy in Assam, India","volume":"44","author":"Watmough","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forpol.2008.10.007","article-title":"The economic contribution of forest resource use to rural livelihoods in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Babulo","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Policy Econ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.17520\/biods.2015147","article-title":"Location determination of ecologically vulnerable regions in China","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biodivers. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355770X10000513","article-title":"Mapping poverty in rural China: How much does the environment matter?","volume":"16","author":"Olivia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Dev. Econ."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"The poverty-Environment nexus in developing countries: Evidence from Ethiopia: A systematic review","volume":"24","author":"Kassa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian J. Agric. Ext. Econ. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-018-0155-4","article-title":"Land degradation and poverty","volume":"1","author":"Barbier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2014.03.006","article-title":"Environmental income and rural livelihoods: A global-comparative analysis","volume":"64","author":"Angelsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.1692","article-title":"Poorer without it? The neglected role of the natural environment in poverty and wellbeing","volume":"26","author":"Schleicher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2019.01.017","article-title":"Heterogeneous impact of livelihood diversification on household welfare: Cross-country evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"117","author":"Asfaw","year":"2019","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1177\/030913259301700103","article-title":"The space of vulnerability: The causal structure of hunger and famine","volume":"17","author":"Watts","year":"1993","journal-title":"Prog. Hum. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.03.009","article-title":"Evaluating the role of livelihood assets in suitable livelihood strategies: Protocol for anti-poverty policy in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau, China","volume":"78","author":"Hua","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"2614","article-title":"Coupling between ecological vulnerability and economic poverty in contiguous destitute areas, China: Empirical analysis of 714 poverty-stricken counties","volume":"27","author":"Cao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-4959.2005.00146.x","article-title":"A geographical perspective on poverty\u2013environment interactions","volume":"171","author":"Gray","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geogr. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2015.10.022","article-title":"Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China","volume":"78","author":"Ward","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"103","article-title":"Fragility and rural poverty","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2004","journal-title":"Probl. Agric. Econ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3878(01)00154-7","article-title":"Behavioral responses to risk in rural China","volume":"66","author":"Jalan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Dev. Econ."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1478","article-title":"Comprehensive measurement of county poverty and anti-poverty targeting after 2020 in China","volume":"73","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spasta.2017.02.009","article-title":"Understanding the inconsistent relationships between socioeconomic factors and poverty incidence across contiguous poverty-stricken regions in China: Multilevel modelling","volume":"21","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spat. Stat."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/ruso.12216","article-title":"The spatial distribution of poverty and the long reach of the industrial makeup of places: New evidence on spatial and temporal regimes","volume":"84","author":"Curtis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rural Sociol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1080\/1747423X.2012.667447","article-title":"Exploring the links between census and environment using remotely sensed satellite sensor imagery","volume":"8","author":"Watmough","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Land Use Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spasta.2020.100461","article-title":"Using multiple linear regression and random forests to identify spatial poverty determinants in rural China","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spat. Stat."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2005.09.005","article-title":"Exploring the spatial variation of food poverty in Ecuador","volume":"30","author":"Farrow","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Policy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1007\/s10708-018-9926-8","article-title":"Poverty as a function of space: Understanding the spatial configuration of poverty in Malaysia for Sustainable Development Goal number one","volume":"84","author":"Vaziri","year":"2019","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810802443457","article-title":"Geographical detectors-based health risk assessment and its application in the neural tube defects study of the Heshun Region, China","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2012.01.015","article-title":"Environmental health risk detection with GeogDetector","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2016.02.052","article-title":"A measure of spatial stratified heterogeneity","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"221","article-title":"Classification of ecological environment vulnerability of typical karst county in Guizhou","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Carsol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"158","article-title":"Analysis on influential factors of poverty in contiguous destitute areas in Guizhou Province","volume":"26","author":"Zeng","year":"2017","journal-title":"World Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003","article-title":"China\u2019s (uneven) progress against poverty","volume":"82","author":"Ravallion","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dev. Econ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1093\/wber\/14.1.129","article-title":"Geographical targeting for poverty alleviation: An introduction to the special issue","volume":"14","author":"Bigman","year":"2000","journal-title":"World Bank Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-018-0943-9","article-title":"Multi-scale Spatial Patterns and Influencing Factors of Rural Poverty: A Case Study in the Liupan Mountain Region, Gansu Province, China","volume":"28","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., and Liu, Y. (2019). The geography of poverty: Review and research prospects. J. Rural Stud."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2016.06.004","article-title":"A geographic identification of multidimensional poverty in rural China under the framework of sustainable livelihoods analysis","volume":"73","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1385","article-title":"A study on the Relationship between natural factors and population distribution in Beijing using Geographical Detector","volume":"32","author":"Lv","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"21","article-title":"Poverty effect test of natural geographical environment-An Empirical Analysis of the Influence of Physical Geography on Rural Poverty","volume":"2","author":"Qu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. Rural Econ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.12.068","article-title":"Building a sustainable development model for China\u2019s poverty-stricken reservoir regions based on system dynamics","volume":"176","author":"Cheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"139","article-title":"Interpolation of rainfall data with Thin Plate Smoothing Splines-Part I: Two dimensional smoothing of data with short range correlation","volume":"2","author":"Hutchinson","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Inf. Decis. Anal."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111285","article-title":"Mapping annual land use changes in China\u2019s poverty-stricken areas from 2013\u20132018","volume":"232","author":"Ge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1435-5597.1998.tb00710.x","article-title":"Some practical applications of Moran\u2019s I\u2019s exact conditional distribution","volume":"77","author":"Tiefelsdorf","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pap. Reg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.2307\/143141","article-title":"A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region","volume":"46","author":"Tobler","year":"1970","journal-title":"Econ. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"3","article-title":"Spatial differentiation and influencing factors analysis of rural poverty at county scale: A case study of Shanyang county in Shaanxi province, China","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00338.x","article-title":"Local indicators of spatial association-LISA","volume":"27","author":"Anselin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"168","article-title":"General directions and countermeasures for urbanization development in mountain areas of China","volume":"31","author":"Deng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2015.10.024","article-title":"Marginality as a root cause of poverty: Identifying marginality hotspots in Ethiopia","volume":"78","author":"Husmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"306","article-title":"The link between poverty, environment and ecotourism development in areas adjacent to Maasai Mara and Amboseli protected areas, Kenya","volume":"16","author":"Wishitemi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tour. Manag. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2017.10.006","article-title":"Natural topographic controls on the spatial distribution of poverty-stricken counties in China","volume":"90","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1812969116","article-title":"Socioecologically informed use of remote sensing data to predict rural household poverty","volume":"116","author":"Watmough","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"161","article-title":"Geographic detection and optimizing decision of the differentiation mechanism of rural poverty in China","volume":"72","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1108\/CAER-11-2015-0157","article-title":"Realizing targeted poverty alleviation in China: people\u2019s voices, implementation challenges and policy implications","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"China Agric. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"279","article-title":"Regional and sustainable approach for target-poverty alleviation and development of China","volume":"31","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"337","article-title":"Study on Policy Innovation and Suggestions of Targeted Poverty Alleviation Based on Typical Investigation","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-016-2802-4","article-title":"Crop diversification and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe: Adaptive management for environmental change","volume":"5","author":"Makate","year":"2016","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jae.a020925","article-title":"The determinants of poverty in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire in the 1980s","volume":"6","author":"Grootaert","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Afr. Econ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2019.104691","article-title":"Climate and poverty in Africa South of the Sahara","volume":"125","author":"Azzarri","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Dev."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/5\/270\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:51:06Z","timestamp":1760161866000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/5\/270"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi10050270"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi10050270","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]]}}}