{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T20:40:29Z","timestamp":1776112829815,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research (STEP) program","award":["2019QZKK0308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019QZKK0308"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Changing land-use patterns in the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau (QTP) due to natural factors and human interference have led to higher ecological vulnerability and even more underlying issues related to time and space in this alpine area. Ecological vulnerability assessment provides not only a solution to surface-feature-related problems but also insight into sustainable eco-environmental planning and resource management as a response to potential climate changes if driving factors are known. In this study, the ecological vulnerability index (EVI) of Shannan City in the core area of the QTP was assessed using a selected set of ecological, social, and economic indicators and spatial principal component analysis (SPCA) to calculate their weights. The data included Landsat images and socio-economic data from 1990 to 2015, at five-year intervals. The results showed that the total EVI remains at a medium vulnerability level, with minor fluctuations over 25 years (peaks in 2000, when there was a sudden increase in slight vulnerability, which switched to extreme vulnerability), and gradually increases from east to west. In addition, spatial analysis showed a distinct positive correlation between the EVI and land-use degree, livestock husbandry output, desertification area, and grassland area. The artificial afforestation program (AAP) has a positive effect by preventing the environment from becoming more vulnerable. The results provide practical information and suggestions for planners to take measures to improve the land-use degree in urban and pastoral areas in the QTP based on spatial-temporal heterogeneity patterns of the EVI of Shannan City.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10050327","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T10:59:12Z","timestamp":1620817152000},"page":"327","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Natural and Political Determinants of Ecological Vulnerability in the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau: A Case Study of Shannan, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8383-737X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunxiao","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of the Life and Environmental Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570, Singapore"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of the Life and Environmental Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of the Life and Environmental Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luo","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of the Life and Environmental Science, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17952","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74804-4","article-title":"Effects of temperature variability and extremes on spring phenology across the contiguous United States from 1982 to 2016","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13232","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70087-x","article-title":"Resilience to drought of dryland wetlands threatened by climate change","volume":"10","author":"Sandi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4546","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18326-7","article-title":"Global phosphorus shortage will be aggravated by soil erosion","volume":"11","author":"Alewell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3009","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03267-x","article-title":"Historical grassland desertification changes in the Horqin Sandy Land, Northern China (1985\u20132013)","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-57280-3","article-title":"Global vulnerability of marine mammals to global warming","volume":"10","author":"Albouy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2015.07.001","article-title":"Ecological vulnerability indicators","volume":"60","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"39","article-title":"Study on the evaluation of ecological frangibility of Tarim River Basin","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arid Environ. Monit."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"149","article-title":"Review of domestic and international research on ecological vulnerability and outlook","volume":"30","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"East China Econ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4943","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18740-x","article-title":"Future climate change vulnerability of endemic island mammals","volume":"11","author":"Leclerc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106248","article-title":"A new multimetric index for the evaluation of water ecological quality of French Guiana streams based on benthic diatoms","volume":"113","author":"David","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2018.07.015","article-title":"Assessment of ecological vulnerability to climate variability on coastal fishing communities: A study of Ungwana Bay and Lower Tana Estuary, Kenya","volume":"163","author":"Mumini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"260","article-title":"Understanding of Disaster Risk and the Management Associated with Climate Change in IPCC AR5","volume":"10","author":"Ying","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Clim. Chang. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011515213106","article-title":"Distributed process modeling for regional assessment of coastal vulnerability to sea-level rise","volume":"6","author":"Bryan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Modeling Assess."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2013.02.013","article-title":"Assessment of coastal protection as an ecosystem service in Europe","volume":"30","author":"Liquete","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1515","article-title":"A bibliometric analysis of the progress of ecological vulnerability research in China","volume":"67","author":"Tian","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.11.059","article-title":"Ecological vulnerability assessment for ecological conservation and environmental management","volume":"206","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"58","article-title":"Land use change and its ecological effects in a typical area of the Northeast agricultural and pastoral intercrossing belt","volume":"16","author":"Lu","year":"2006","journal-title":"China Popul. Resour. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"12","article-title":"Vulnerability assessment of urban water sources in the plateau basin","volume":"9","author":"Zeng","year":"2013","journal-title":"China Rural Water Conserv. Hydropower"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"5","article-title":"Study on Water Resources Vulnerability Assessment of Urban Water Sources in Yunnan Plateau\u2014Taking the Qing Shuihai Water Source as an Example","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"China Rural Water Resour. Hydropower"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2019.105792","article-title":"Regional-scale assessment of environmental vulnerability in an arid inland basin","volume":"109","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.10.044","article-title":"Method for evaluating ecological vulnerability under climate change based on remote sensing: A case study","volume":"85","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"13","article-title":"Evaluation of ecological vulnerability of Tarim River basin based on PSR model","volume":"47","author":"Xue","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hebei Univ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2016.03.026","article-title":"Zoning eco-environmental vulnerability for environmental management and protection","volume":"69","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.15244\/pjoes\/89981","article-title":"Dynamic evaluation of ecological vulnerability in a lake watershed based on rs and gis technology","volume":"28","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pol. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"3577","article-title":"Dynamic and comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of provincial plantation in China and analysis of influencing factors","volume":"38","author":"Mei","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2021, April 30). Forestry Law of the People\u2019s Republic of China. Available online: https:\/\/www.wenmi.com\/article\/py5wxu059ksv.html\/."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"5","article-title":"Study on Benefits of Soil and Water Conservation by Closing Hill for Afforestation","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Res. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Zhang, Z. (2019). Effects of Closing the Land for Reforestation on Water Holding Capacity of Litter Layer in Larix principis-rupprechtii Forest. Prot. For. Sci. Technol., 5, 8\u20139, 16."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"39","article-title":"An analysis of the application of closed mountain forestry in the construction of forestry ecological projects","volume":"36","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. Sci. Technol. Inf."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"47","article-title":"A brief discussion on the technical management and measures of closed forestry","volume":"13","author":"Qiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"South. Agric."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"154","article-title":"The use of closed mountain forestry in forestry ecological engineering construction","volume":"12","author":"Qiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agric. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Xu, J. (2012). The Effect of Forest Closure on Plant Diversity in Several Small Watersheds. Doctoral dissertation. Huazhong Agric. Univ."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"76","article-title":"Analysis on Contribution of Artificial Afforestation to Forest Coverage","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Northeast For. Univ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., and Zhang, C. (2020). Effect of natural and artificial afforestation reclamation on soil properties and vegetation in coastal saline silt soils. Catena.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2020.105066"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"6196","article-title":"Comprehensive benefit evaluation of forestry ecological construction projects in Dengkou County, Inner Mongolia","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Ma, J.L., and Dong, D.E.H. (2005, January 20\u201323). Closure of mountains for forestry is an effective way to cultivate forests in Sanjiangyuan. Proceedings of the 2005 CCSA Academic Conference 26 Session (1), Urumqi, Xinjiang, China."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"47","article-title":"Analysis of the pros and cons of green forestation on ecological construction","volume":"35","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Henan Agric."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2020, October 10). The Tibet Forestry and Grassland Bureau, Available online: http:\/\/www.xzly.gov.cn\/article\/4739."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-14-2267-2020","article-title":"Satellite-observed monthly glacier and snow mass changes in southeast Tibet: Implication for substantial meltwater contribution to the Brahmaputra","volume":"14","author":"Yi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsrc.2020.05.006","article-title":"Mass flows and river response in rapid uplifting regions\u2014A case of lower Yarlung Tsangpo basin, southeast Tibet, China","volume":"35","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sediment Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2016.09.005","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of the relative roles of climate change and human activities in desertification processes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau based on net primary productivity","volume":"147","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2017.07.078","article-title":"Responses of trophic structure and zooplankton community to salinity and temperature in Tibetan lakes: Implication for the effect of climate warming","volume":"124","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"96","article-title":"Analysis of temporal and spatial changes and driving mechanisms of ecosystem vulnerability in the alpine ecological zone of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"37","author":"Bing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.137910","article-title":"Effects of grassland degradation on ecological stoichiometry of soil ecosystems on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"722","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140721","article-title":"Spatio-temporal variations and coupling of human activity intensity and ecosystem services based on the four-quadrant model on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"743","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.10.027","article-title":"Estimating the spatial pattern of soil respiration in Tibetan alpine grasslands using Landsat TM images and MODIS data","volume":"26","author":"Ni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"1014","article-title":"Remote sensing-based meteorological assessment of ecological quality in the Everest region","volume":"31","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Grassl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"164","article-title":"Ecological risk assessment and management strategies in agricultural and pastoral areas of the Tibetan plateau: A case study of Zafeng County in Shannan","volume":"24","author":"Zhou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agric. Res. Arid Reg."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.110291","article-title":"Ecological impact assessment of 110 micropollutants in the Yarlung Tsangpo River on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"262","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fayiah, M., Dong, S., Khomera, S.W., Ur Rehman, S.A., Yang, M., and Xiao, J. (2020). Status and Challenges of Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau\u2019s Grasslands: An Analysis of Causes, Mitigation Measures, and Way Forward. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12031099"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2020, June 25). Shannan Tibet Statistical Yearbook. Available online: https:\/\/www.yearbookchina.com\/navibooklist-n3018111419-1.html\/."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"109","article-title":"Climatic characteristics of Shannan region of Tibet","volume":"20","author":"Wangmo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1","article-title":"Evaluating sustainable forest management strategies with the analytic network process in a pressure-state-response framework","volume":"88","author":"Wolfslehner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-017-4789-x","article-title":"Ecological vulnerability analysis of Tibetan towns with tourism-based economy: A case study of the Bayi District","volume":"15","author":"Kan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.04.055","article-title":"Assessing spatiotemporal eco-environmental vulnerability by Landsat data","volume":"80","author":"Liou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, R.M.B., Sanches Fernandes, L.F., Vitor Cortes, R.M., and Leal Pacheco, F.A. (2019). Hydrologic impacts of land use changes in the Sabor River Basin: A historical view and future perspectives. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11071464"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Zhang, J. (2014). Research on Ecological Vulnerability Evaluation Method and Model Based on 3S Technology in Shanxi Province. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Shanxi Agriculture University]."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"2289","article-title":"Ecological vulnerability assessment in the alpine region of the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"30","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1077","article-title":"Geo-spectrum characteristics of land use change in Jiangsu Province, China","volume":"27","author":"Lyu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2018.07.038","article-title":"Spatiotemporal changes of land use\/cover from 1995 to 2015 in an oasis in the middle reaches of the Keriya River, southern Tarim Basin, Northwest China","volume":"171","author":"Muyibul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"237","article-title":"Vegetation changes on the northern slope of Tianshan Mountain in the last 10a based on AVHRRNOAA images","volume":"25","author":"Luo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Glacial Permafr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.09.115","article-title":"NDVI-based vegetation dynamics and its response to climate changes at Amur-Heilongjiang River Basin from 1982 to 2015","volume":"650","author":"Chu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2016.08.038","article-title":"Using the NDVI to identify variations in, and responses of, vegetation to climate change on the Tibetan Plateau from 1982 to 2012","volume":"444","author":"Pang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"338","article-title":"A study of cover change in Anhui Province based on MODIS and AVHRR data","volume":"28","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"China Agric. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"20","article-title":"Research on Intensive Utilization of Land Resources in the Process of Urbanization\u2014Taking Shannan Region in Tibet as an Example","volume":"4","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rural Econ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"1396","article-title":"Analysis on vegetation coverage change in Shannan, Tibet, China based on remotely sensed data","volume":"35","author":"Shuying","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Desert Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1792","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12863","article-title":"Home-field advantages of litter decomposition increasewith increasing N deposition rates: A litter and soilperspective","volume":"31","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2020, June 25). Shannan Tibet Statistical Yearbook. Available online: https:\/\/www.yearbookchina.com\/navibooklist-n3018111419-1.html\/."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"68","article-title":"Analysis of geological survey and environmental problems of water conservancy and hydropower projects in Tibet","volume":"9","author":"Fumin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tibet Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Long, T. (2013). Research on the Impact of Hydropower Project Construction on Ecological Environment. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Sichuan Agriculture University]."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"10","article-title":"The splendid flower of national unity in Chenna County, Shannan, Tibet","volume":"11","author":"Ying","year":"2014","journal-title":"China Border Police"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"34","article-title":"The problems and countermeasures of grassland ecological construction in Shannan, Tibet","volume":"28","author":"Luzen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Tibet. Univ."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/5\/327\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:59:52Z","timestamp":1760162392000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/5\/327"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi10050327"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi10050327","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]}}}