{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T11:15:03Z","timestamp":1778757303997,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]],"date-time":"2021-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indigenous maps are critical in understanding the historic and current land tenure of Indigenous groups. Furthermore, Indigenous claims to land can be seen in their connections via toponymy. European concepts of territory and political boundaries did not coincide with First Nation\/American Indian views, resulting in the mistaken view that Natives did not have formal concepts of their territories. And Tribes\/First Nations with cross-border territory have special jurisdictional problems. This paper illustrates how many Native residents were very spatially aware of their own lands, as well as neighboring nations\u2019 lands, overlaps between groups, hunting territories, populations, and trade networks. Finally, the Sinixt First Nation serve as a perfect example of a case study on how an Aboriginal people are currently inputting and using a GIS representation of their territory with proper toponymy and use areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10060397","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]],"date-time":"2021-06-08T12:08:55Z","timestamp":1623154135000},"page":"397","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Importance of Indigenous Cartography and Toponymy to Historical Land Tenure and Contributions to Euro\/American\/Canadian Cartography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Daniel G.","family":"Cole","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, IT Office, MRC 136, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"E. Richard","family":"Hart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hart West and Associates, Winthrop, WA 98862, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Lewis, G.M. (1984). Maps, Mapmaking, and Map Use by Native North Americans. The History of Cartography, University of Chicago Press. Available online: https:\/\/press.uchicago.edu\/books\/HOC\/HOC_V2_B3\/HOC_VOLUME2_Book3_chapter4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2021, May 25). Library of Congress (LOC) Guide That Includes Much of Lewis\u2019 Work, Available online: https:\/\/guides.loc.gov\/native-american-spaces\/cartographic-resources\/indian-maps-mapping."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"First Nations Mapmaking in the Great Lakes Region in Intercultural Contexts: A Historical Review","volume":"30","author":"Lewis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mich. Hist. 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Map of the Several Nations of Indians to the Northwest of South Carolina; 1721, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/2005625337\/."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Buache, P. (2021, May 25). Ochagach. Carte Physique des Terreins les Plus Eleves de la Partie Occidentale du Canada; David Rumsey Map Collection (DRMC); 1754. Available online: https:\/\/www.davidrumsey.com\/luna\/servlet\/detail\/RUMSEY~8~1~306194~90076573:Carte-physique-des-terreins-les-plu?sort=Pub_List_No_InitialSort&qvq=w4s:\/who%2FBuache%25252C%2BPhilippe%25252C%2B1700-1773;sort:Pub_List_No_InitialSort;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=13&trs=45."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2021, May 25). The Original Map by Ochagach is from The University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Available online: http:\/\/rla.unc.edu\/Mapfiles\/BSH3\/BSH%20B%204044-84.HMC.3.jpg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hess, J.B. (2021). A Cartographic History and Analyses of Indian-White Relations in The Great Plains. Digital Mapping and Indigenous America, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429295546"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chegeree (2021, May 25). Map of the Country about the Mississippi, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/74695023."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Montr\u00e9sor, J. (2021, May 25). Copy of a Sketch of the Monongahela, with the Field of Battle; 1775, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/gm71002314\/."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Red Head (2021, May 25). Sketch of The River St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario to Montreal by an Onondaga Indian., Available online: https:\/\/collections.leventhalmap.org\/search\/commonwealth:hx11z0861."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"De Brahm, J.G.W. (2021, May 25). Map of The Indian Nations in The Southern Department, Digital Library of Georgia. Available online: https:\/\/dlg.usg.edu\/record\/guan_hmap_hmap1766d4#item."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"28","article-title":"Matonabbee\u2019s Map","volume":"26","author":"Helm","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arct. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2021, May 25). Comanche Pictograph Map of the Battle of Sierra Blanca, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/resource\/g4322s.ct006428\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Viola, H.J. (2021, June 03). Smithsonian Expert Discusses Comanche Map; Friends of the Geography Map Division, Philip Lee Phillips Map Society of the Library of Congress, 2014; Volume 12, p. 3, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/rr\/geogmap\/pdf\/plp\/plpnewsletters\/2014\/news2014fal.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Kohl, J.G. (2021, May 25). An Indian Map of The Upper-Missouri, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/resource\/g4127m.ct000579\/."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"166","article-title":"Indian Maps in the Hudson Bay Company Archives: A Comparison of Five Area Maps Recorded by Peter Fidler, 1801\u20131802","volume":"21","author":"Beattie","year":"1985","journal-title":"Archivaria"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.5309\/willmaryquar.71.4.0589","article-title":"\u201cHere is my country\u201d: Too N\u00e9\u2019s Map of Lewis and Clark in the Great Plains","volume":"71","author":"Steinke","year":"2014","journal-title":"William Mary Q."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Clark, W., King, N., and Lewis, M. (2021, May 25). A Map of Part of the Continent of North America: Between the 35th and 51st Degrees of North Latitude and Extending from 89\u00b0 Degrees of West Longitude to the Pacific Ocean, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/resource\/g3300.ct000586\/."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lewis, S., Clark, W., and Harrison, S. (2021, May 25). A Map of Lewis and Clark\u2019s Track, across the Western Portion of North America from the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean: By Order of the Executive of the United States in 1804, 5 & 6, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/resource\/g4126s.ct000028\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Cole, D.G., and Imre, S. (2014). The Use of GIS to Analyze the Native American Tribal Information from the Lewis and Clark Corps of Discovery. Chapter 8. Mapping Native America: Cartographic Interactions between Indigenous Peoples, Government, and Academia; Volume I, Cartography and the Government, CreateSpace Pub."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Mooney, J. (1928). 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Available online: https:\/\/jcb.lunaimaging.com\/luna\/servlet\/workspace\/handleMediaPlayer?qvq=w4s%253A%252Fwhat%252FArctic%2bregions--Maps&trs=12&mi=4&lunaMediaId=JCB~1~1~4129~6410001."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Gero-Schunu-Wy-Ha\u2019s Map Is in the Cartographic and Architectural Branch, Record Group 75, Map 931, National Archives, College Park, MD. Non-Chi-Ning-Ga\u2019s map is in the Cartographic and Architectural Branch, Record Group 75, Map 821, National Archives, College Park, MD."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Nicollet, J.N., Fremont, J.C., and Stone, W.J. (2021, May 25). Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River from Astronomical and Barometrical Observations, Surveys, and Information, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/resource\/g4042m.ct001419\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernstein, D. (2018). How the West Was Drawn: Mapping, Indians, and the Construction of the Trans-Mississippi West, University of Nebraska Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1ntfj8"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_32.1","unstructured":"Gregg, J., Morse, S.E., and Breese, S. (1844). A Map of the Indian Territory: Northern Texas and New Mexico, Showing the Great Western Prairies, David Rumsey Map Collection"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_32.2","unstructured":"Stanford University. . This is another example of an American relying on an Indigenous informant was in 1844, when Joshua Gregg published a book that included a map he drafted of Indian nation lands, reservations, hunting grounds, villages, pueblos, along with trade routes, migratory trails, military expeditions, forts and trading posts, missions, hydrology and topography. As Bernstein notes (pp. 9-10), Gregg heavily relied on Comanche Chief Tabba-quenna (Big Eagle), who drew him a map (that likely was not saved) which accurately portrayed all of the major rivers from Missouri to Santa Fe along with a number of Mexican settlements."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2021, May 25). The Pierre-Jean de Smet Map Collection, The Jesuit Archives and Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/jesuitarchives.omeka.net\/items\/browse?collection=5&page=1."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"De Smet, P.-J. (2021, May 25). Map of the Upper Great Plains and Rocky Mountains region, Available online: https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/2005630226\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Denig, E.T. (2021, May 25). Anonymous Assiniboine Map of the North Side of Missouri River from Fort Union to Fort Benton; National Anthropological Archives (NAA). 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Available online: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1cggWDHMb2x_4cIezpdEW7BARjMbIiF84\/view?usp=sharing."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/6\/397\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:12:10Z","timestamp":1760163130000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/6\/397"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi10060397"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi10060397","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202104.0396.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]]}}}