{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T15:53:28Z","timestamp":1780502008554,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]],"date-time":"2021-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633132800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The technical advances in navigation systems should enhance the driving experience, supporting drivers\u2019 spatial decision making and learning in less familiar or unfamiliar environments. Furthermore, autonomous driving systems are expected to take over navigation and driving in the near future. Yet, previous studies pointed at a still unresolved gap between environmental exploration using topographical maps and technical navigation means. Less is known about the impact of the autonomous system on the driver\u2019s spatial learning. The present study investigates the development of spatial knowledge and cognitive workload by comparing printed maps, navigation systems, and autopilot in an unfamiliar virtual environment. Learning of a new route with printed maps was associated with a higher cognitive demand compared to the navigation system and autopilot. In contrast, driving a route by memory resulted in an increased level of cognitive workload if the route had been previously learned with the navigation system or autopilot. Way-finding performance was found to be less prone to errors when learning a route from a printed map. The exploration of the environment with the autopilot was not found to provide any compelling advantages for landmark knowledge. Our findings suggest long-term disadvantages of self-driving vehicles for spatial memory representations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10100668","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,4]],"date-time":"2021-10-04T09:24:15Z","timestamp":1633339455000},"page":"668","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["To Drive or to Be Driven? The Impact of Autopilot, Navigation System, and Printed Maps on Driver\u2019s Cognitive Workload and Spatial Knowledge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Iuliia","family":"Brishtel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Augmented Vision, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Trippstadter Str. 122, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schr\u00f6dinger-Str. 57, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Cognitive Science, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schr\u00f6dinger-Str. 57, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Vozniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Saarland Informatics Campus, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbr\u00fccken, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Agents and Simulated Reality, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Stuhlsatzenhausweg 3, Saarland Informatics Campus D 3_2, 66123 Saarbr\u00fccken, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason Raphael","family":"Rambach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Augmented Vision, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Trippstadter Str. 122, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Mirbach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Augmented Vision, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Trippstadter Str. 122, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Didier","family":"Stricker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Augmented Vision, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Trippstadter Str. 122, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Computer Science, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schr\u00f6dinger-Str. 57, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burnett, G., and Lee, K. (2005). The Effect of Vehicle Navigation Systems on the Formation of Cognitive Maps. Traffic and Transport Psychology: Theory and Application, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008044379-9\/50188-6"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-4944(84)80003-1","article-title":"The effects of pathway configuration, landmarks and stress on environmental cognition","volume":"4","author":"Evans","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463300013278","article-title":"How Will Route Guidance Information Affect Cognitive Maps?","volume":"49","author":"Jackson","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(82)90019-6","article-title":"Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation","volume":"14","author":"Thorndyke","year":"1982","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Harris, D., and Li, W.C. (2020). Spatial Knowledge Acquisition for Cognitive Maps in Autonomous Vehicles. Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics. Cognition and Design, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1037\/h0061626","article-title":"Cognitive maps in rats and men","volume":"55","author":"Tolman","year":"1948","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4236\/cus.2019.71001","article-title":"Spatial Knowledge Acquisition in the Process of Navigation: A Review","volume":"7","author":"Ahmadpoor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197684","article-title":"Effects of the cognitive organization of route knowledge on judgments of macrospatial distance","volume":"13","author":"Allen","year":"1985","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f6wen, H., Krukar, J., and Schwering, A. (2019). Spatial Learning with Orientation Maps: The Influence of Different Environmental Features on Spatial Knowledge Acquisition. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8030149"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, L., Reichenbacher, T., and Zipf, A. (2005). Focalizing Measures of Salience for Wayfinding. Map-based Mobile Services: Theories, Methods and Implementations, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/b138407"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kettunen, P., Putto, K., Gyselinck, V., Krause, C., and Sarjakoski, L. (2015). Perception and Recall of Landmarks for Personal Navigation in Nature at Night Versus Day. Modern Trends in Cartography, Springer. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-07926-4_22"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1006\/jevp.1998.0077","article-title":"Wayfinding errors while driving","volume":"18","author":"Burns","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0000082","article-title":"Active and Passive Spatial Learning in Human Navigation: Acquisition of Graph Knowledge","volume":"41","author":"Chrastil","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027133","article-title":"Can Active Navigation Be as Good as Driving? A Comparison of Spatial Memory in Drivers and Backseat Drivers","volume":"18","author":"Steffens","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychology. Appl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1006\/jevp.1997.0070","article-title":"Two strategies for learning a route in a driving simulator","volume":"17","author":"Aginsky","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098009351186","article-title":"Accessibility and Cognition: The Effect of Transportation Mode on Spatial Knowledge","volume":"47","author":"Mondschein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9272.2006.00527.x","article-title":"The Cognitive Load of Geographic Information","volume":"58","author":"Bunch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prof. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1068\/a311459","article-title":"Role of attention in spatial learning during simulated route navigation","volume":"31","author":"Albert","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. A"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvp.2006.08.001","article-title":"Computer-assisted navigation and the acquisition of route and survey knowledge","volume":"26","author":"Zimmer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00193","article-title":"Modified Navigation Instructions for Spatial Navigation Assistance Systems Lead to Incidental Spatial Learning","volume":"8","author":"Gramann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-4944(81)80025-4","article-title":"Memory for the spatial layout of the everyday physical environment: Factors affecting rate of acquisition","volume":"1","author":"Lindberg","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2005.08.003","article-title":"Spatial knowledge acquisition from direct experience in the environment: Individual differences in the development of metric knowledge and the integration of separately learned places","volume":"52","author":"Ishikawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9","article-title":"Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research","volume":"Volume 52","author":"Hancock","year":"1988","journal-title":"Human Mental Workload"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dawson, M., Schell, A., and Filion, D. (2007). The electrodermal system. Handbook of Psychophysiology, Cambridge University Press. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511546396.007"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2407(08)60007-5","article-title":"The Development of Spatial Representations of Large-Scale Environments","volume":"10","author":"Siegel","year":"1975","journal-title":"Adv. Child Dev. Behav."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463300001028","article-title":"Turn right at the Traffic Lights: The Requirement for Landmarks in Vehicle Navigation Systems","volume":"53","author":"Burnett","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Chen, Y., Zheng, S., Yuan, Y., and Shuang, W. (2020). Research on Generating an Indoor Landmark Salience Model for Self-Location and Spatial Orientation from Eye-Tracking Data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9020097"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"129","article-title":"Modeling spatial knowledge","volume":"2","author":"Kuipers","year":"1978","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, G.L. (2004). Human Spatial Memory, Erlbaum.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410609984"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"47","article-title":"Chapter 3 Psychological Perspectives on Spatial Cognition Thomas","volume":"Volume 96","author":"Golledge","year":"1993","journal-title":"Behavior and Environment"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montello, D.R. (1998). A New Framework for Understanding the Acquisition of Spatial Knowledge in Large-Scale Environments, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195103427.003.0011"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2014.10.008","article-title":"Do Modes of Transportation and GPS Affect Cognitive Maps of Londoners?","volume":"70","author":"Minaei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Parush, A., Ahuvia, S., and Erev, I. (2007). Degradation in Spatial Knowledge Acquisition When Using Automatic Navigation Systems, Springer."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"On-Road Automated Driving (ORAD) Committee (2018). Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles, SAE International."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dikmen, M., and Burns, C. (2016, January 24\u201326). Autonomous Driving in the Real World: Experiences with Tesla Autopilot and Summon. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (Automotive\u2019UI 16), Ann Arbor, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3003715.3005465"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931213601921","article-title":"Electrodermal Response and Automation Trust during Simulated Self-Driving Car Use","volume":"61","author":"Morris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1177\/001391657000200106","article-title":"Styles and Method of Structuring a City","volume":"2","author":"Appleyard","year":"1970","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Green, P., Levison, W., Paelke, G., and Serafin, C. (1995). Preliminary Human factors Design Guidlines for Driver Information Systems, Final Report."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720810376055","article-title":"Complacency and Bias in Human Use of Automation: An Attentional Integration","volume":"52","author":"Parasuraman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acemoglu, D., and Restrepo, P. (2018). Artificial Intelligence, Automation and Work, National Bureau of Economic Research.","DOI":"10.3386\/w24196"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120605000909","article-title":"Nasa-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX); 20 Years Later","volume":"50","author":"Hart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2017.2779329","article-title":"Wearable Device-Based System to Monitor a Driver\u2019s Stress, Fatigue, and Drowsiness","volume":"67","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00057","article-title":"A Review of Psychophysiological Measures to Assess Cognitive States in Real-World Driving","volume":"13","author":"Lohani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2546","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092546","article-title":"Mind Wandering in a Multimodal Reading Setting: Behavior Analysis & Automatic Detection Using Eye-Tracking and an EDA Sensor","volume":"20","author":"Brishtel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"797","article-title":"cvxEDA: A Convex Optimization Approach to Electrodermal Activity Processing","volume":"63","author":"Greco","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Posada-Quintero, H.F., and Chon, K.H. (2020). Innovations in electrodermal activity data collection and signal processing: A systematic review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020479"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2010.04.028","article-title":"A continuous measure of phasic electrodermal activity","volume":"190","author":"Benedek","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-018-1451-8","article-title":"Small is beautiful: In defense of the small-N design","volume":"25","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000337","article-title":"Power contours: Optimising sample size and precision in experimental psychology and human neuroscience","volume":"26","author":"Baker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Feld, H., Mirbach, B., Katrolia, J.S., Selim, M., Wasenm\u00fcller, O., and Stricker, D. (2020, January 10\u201312). DFKI Cabin Simulator: A Test Platform for Visual In-Cabin Monitoring Functions. Commercial Vehicle Technology 2020. Proceedings of the 6th Commercial Vehicle Technology Symposium\u2014CVT 2020, Kaiserlautern, Germany."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"243","article-title":"Enriching wayfinding instructions with local landmarks","volume":"2478","author":"Martin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.17533\/udea.rccp.324493","article-title":"A spreadsheet program for making a balanced Latin Square design","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Colomb. De Cienc. Pecu."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2019.06.041","article-title":"The use of electrodermal activity (EDA) measurement to understand consumer emotions \u2013 A literature review and a call for action","volume":"104","author":"Caruelle","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjem.2018.08.001","article-title":"User\u2019s guide to correlation coefficients","volume":"18","author":"Akoglu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Turk. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Dancey, C., and Reidy, J. (2017). Statistics without Maths for Psychology, Pearson. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brishtel, I., Ishimaru, S., Augereau, O., Kise, K., and Dengel, A. (2018, January 7\u201311). Assessing cognitive workload on printed and electronic media using eye-tracker and EDA wristband. Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces Companion, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/3180308.3180354"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Byrne, J.H. (2008). 2.11\u2014Human Spatial Memory and Navigation. Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-6410(01)00013-1","article-title":"Active, passive and snapshot exploration in a virtual environment: Influence on scene memory, reorientation and path memory","volume":"11","author":"Gaunet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cogn. Brain Res."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/10\/668\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:08:49Z","timestamp":1760166529000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/10\/10\/668"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi10100668"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi10100668","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]]}}}