{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T18:29:30Z","timestamp":1784140170159,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]],"date-time":"2021-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000781","name":"European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["833168"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["833168"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000781","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Large-scale microsimulations are increasingly resourceful tools for analysing in detail citywide effects and alternative scenarios of our policy decisions, approximating the ideal of \u2018urban digital twins\u2019. Yet, these models are costly and impractical, and there are surprisingly few published examples robustly validated with empirical data. This paper, therefore, presents a new large-scale agent-based traffic microsimulation for the Barcelona urban area using SUMO to show the possibilities and challenges of building these scenarios based on novel fine-grained empirical big data. It combines novel mobility data from real cell phone records with conventional surveys to calibrate the model comparing two different dynamic assignment methods for getting an operationally realistic and efficient simulation. Including through traffic and the use of a stochastic adaptive routing approach results in a larger 24-hour model closer to reality. Based on an extensive multi-scalar evaluation including traffic counts, hourly distribution of trips, and macroscopic metrics, this model expands and outperforms previous large-scale scenarios, which provides new operational opportunities in city co-creation and policy. The novelty of this work relies on the effective modelling approach using newly available data and the realistic robust evaluation. This allows the identification of the fundamental challenges of simulation to accurately capture real-world dynamical systems and to their predictive power at a large scale, even when fed by big data, as envisioned by the digital twin concept applied to smart cities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi11010024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]],"date-time":"2021-12-30T21:41:21Z","timestamp":1640900481000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":72,"title":["Getting Real: The Challenge of Building and Validating a Large-Scale Digital Twin of Barcelona\u2019s Traffic with Empirical Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9389-6616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Argota S\u00e1nchez-Vaquerizo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computational Social Science, D-GESS, ETH Z\u00fcrich, 8092 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Portugali, J. (2000). Self-Organization and the City, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-04099-7"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00112","article-title":"Living in Living Cities","volume":"19","author":"Gershenson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Artif. Life"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1177\/2399808318796416","article-title":"Digital twins","volume":"45","author":"Batty","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Urban Anal. City Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Digital Twin: Manufacturing Excellence through Virtual Factory Replication","volume":"1","author":"Grieves","year":"2014","journal-title":"White Pap."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2020.103064","article-title":"A digital twin smart city for citizen feedback","volume":"110","author":"White","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"99","article-title":"The Digital Twin of the City of Zurich for Urban Planning","volume":"88","author":"Schrotter","year":"2020","journal-title":"PFG\u2014J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Geoinf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ayuntamiento de Madrid (2021). Madrid Actualiza su Simulador de Movilidad e Incluye Todos los Sistemas de Transporte para Reducir las Afecciones al Tr\u00e1fico. Diario de Madrid, Ayuntamiento de Madrid. Available online: https:\/\/diario.madrid.es\/blog\/notas-de-prensa\/madrid-actualiza-su-simulador-de-movilidad-e-incluye-todos-los-sistemas-de-transporte-para-reducir-las-afecciones-al-trafico\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Government of Singapore (2018). Virtual Singapore, Digital Twin, Computer Software."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"European Commission (2021, August 04). Rotterdam\u2019s Digital Twin Redefines Our Physical, Digital, & Social Worlds. Available online: https:\/\/smart-cities-marketplace.ec.europa.eu\/news-and-events\/news\/2019\/rotterdams-digital-twin-redefines-our-physical-digital-social-worlds."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Airaksinen, E., Bergstrom, M., Heinonen, H., Kaisla, K., Lahti, K., and Suomisto, J. (2019). The Kalasatama Digital Twins Project, City of Helsinki."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Hourdos, J., and Michalopoulos, P. (2008). Twin Cities Metro-wide Traffic Micro-Simulation Feasibility Investigation, Minnesota Department of Transportation."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Lowry, I.S. (1964). A Model of Metropolis, RAND Corporation."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Forrester, J.W. (1969). Urban Dynamics, Productivity Press."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"11","article-title":"Land use\u2013transport interaction modeling: A review of the literature and future research directions","volume":"8","author":"Acheampong","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transp. Land Use"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fischer, M.M., and Nijkamp, P. (2014). Land-use transport interaction models. Handbook of Regional Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-23430-9"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1177\/2399808318816992","article-title":"Beyond digital twins\u2014A commentary","volume":"46","author":"Tomko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Urban Anal. City Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1177\/2399808319850652","article-title":"A map is not the territory, or is it?","volume":"46","author":"Batty","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Urban Anal. City Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Wilfire, C. (2021, March 03). How Can We Spearhead City\u2019scale Digital Twins? Infrastructure Intelligence. Available online: http:\/\/www.infrastructure-intelligence.com\/article\/may-2018\/how-can-we-spearhead-city-scale-digital-twins."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Treiber, M., and Kesting, A. (2013). Traffic Flow Dynamics: Data, Models and Simulation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-32460-4"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020EF001573","DOI":"10.1029\/2020EF001573","article-title":"Grounding Social Foundations for Integrated Assessment Models of Climate Change","volume":"8","author":"Mathias","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth\u2019s Futur."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez, P.A., Behrisch, M., Bieker-Walz, L., Erdmann, J., Flotterod, Y.P., Hilbrich, R., Lucken, L., Rummel, J., Wagner, P., and Wiebner, E. (2011, January 4\u20137). Microscopic Traffic Simulation using SUMO. Proceedings of the 2018 21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2018.8569938"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helbing, D. (2010). Quantitative Sociodynamics: Stochastic Methods and Models of Social Interaction Processes, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-11546-2"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heppenstall, A.J., Crooks, A.T., See, L.M., and Batty, M. (2012). Agent-Based Models of Geographical Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-8927-4"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"146","article-title":"Real-Time Traffic Conditions with SUMO for ITS Austria West","volume":"Volume 8594","author":"Behrisch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Simulation of Urban Mobility, SUMO 2013 Conference, Berlin, Germany, 15\u201317 May 2013"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urquiza-Aguiar, L.F., Bautista, P.B., G\u00f3mez, W.C., and Calder\u00f3n, X. (2019, January 25). Comparison of traffic demand generation tools in SUMO. Case study: Access highways to Quito. Proceedings of the PE-WASUN 2019\u201416th ACM International Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Wireless Ad Hoc, Sensor, and Ubiquitous Networks, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3345860.3361521"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balakrishna, R., Antoniou, C., Ben-Akiva, M., Koutsopoulos, H.N., and Wen, Y. (2007). Calibration of microscopic traffic simulation models: Methods and application. Transp. Res. Rec., 198\u2013207.","DOI":"10.3141\/1999-21"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Oketch, T., and Carrick, M. (2005, January 9\u201313). Calibration and validation of a micro-simulation model in network analysis. Proceedings of the 84th TRB Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.04.076","article-title":"Calibration and validation of large-scale traffic simulation networks: A case study","volume":"130","author":"Bartin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2021.102725","article-title":"A coupled macroscopic traffic and pollutant emission modelling system for Barcelona","volume":"92","author":"Guevara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2018.12.024","article-title":"Mobile phone records to feed activity-based travel demand models: MATSim for studying a cordon toll policy in Barcelona","volume":"121","author":"Bassolas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"05002","article-title":"A comparative study of urban road traffic simulators","volume":"Volume 81","author":"Figueira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proceedings of the MATEC Web of Conferences, ICTTE 2016 2016 5th International Conference on Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Lucerne, Switzerland, 6\u201310 July 2016"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Hardy, M., Dodge, L., Smith, T., V\u00e1sconez, K.C., and Wunderlich, K. (2008, January 16\u201320). Evacuation management operations modeling assessment: Transportation modeling inventory. Proceedings of the 15th World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems and ITS America\u2019s 2008 Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2012.04.008","article-title":"Distributed and adaptive traffic signal control within a realistic traffic simulation","volume":"26","author":"McKenney","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soares, J., Lobo, C., Vale, Z., and De Moura Oliveira, P.B. (2014, January 27\u201331). Realistic traffic scenarios using a census methodology: Vila real case study. Proceedings of the IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, National Harbor, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PESGM.2014.6939088"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"47","article-title":"Traffic simulation for all: A real world traffic scenario from the city of Bologna","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Behrisch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 2nd SUMO Conference 2014, Berlin, Germany, 15\u201316 May 2014"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uppoor, S., and Fiore, M. (2011). Large-scale urban vehicular mobility for networking research. IEEE Veh. Netw. Conf. VNC, 62\u201369.","DOI":"10.1109\/VNC.2011.6117125"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.29007\/1zt5","article-title":"Monaco SUMO Traffic (MoST) Scenario: A 3D Mobility Scenario for Cooperative ITS","volume":"2","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epic Ser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rapelli, M., Casetti, C., and Gagliardi, G. (2019, January 7\u20139). TuST: From Raw Data to Vehicular Traffic Simulation in Turin. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE\/ACM 23rd International Symposium on Distributed Simulation and Real Time Applications (DS-RT), Cosenza, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/DS-RT47707.2019.8958652"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behrisch, M. (2019). Connecting Macroscopic and Microscopic Traffic Assignment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-33616-9_4"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu\u00e9riau, M., and Dusparic, I. (2020, January 20\u201323). Quantifying the impact of connected and autonomous vehicles on traffic efficiency and safety in mixed traffic. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 23rd International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, ITS, Rhodes, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC45102.2020.9294174"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Pereira Machado, D. (2020). Microscopic Traffic Assignment under Dynamic Demand. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Facultade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto]."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diallo, A.O., Lozenguez, G., Doniec, A., and Mandiau, R. (2021, January 4\u20136). Comparative evaluation of road traffic simulators based on modeler\u2019s specifications: An application to intermodal mobility behaviors. Proceedings of the ICAART 2021\u201413th International Conference on Agents and Artificial Intelligence, Online.","DOI":"10.5220\/0010238302650272"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2020.102217","article-title":"Comparison of SUMO\u2019s vehicular demand generators in vehicular communications via graph-theory metrics","volume":"106","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129183198000303","article-title":"An Iterative Algorithm to Determine the Dynamic User Equilibrium in a Traffic Simulation Model","volume":"9","author":"Gawron","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Mod. Phys. C"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2021, May 02). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Dynamic User Assignment\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/Demand\/Dynamic_User_Assignment.html."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01386390","article-title":"A note on two problems in connexion with graphs","volume":"1","author":"Dijkstra","year":"1959","journal-title":"Numer. Math."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/TSSC.1968.300136","article-title":"A Formal Basis for the Heuristic Determination of Minimum Cost Paths","volume":"4","author":"Hart","year":"1968","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Sci. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"319","article-title":"Contraction hierarchies: Faster and simpler hierarchical routing in road networks","volume":"Volume 5038","author":"McGeoch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on Experimental Algorithms (WEA 2008)"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Institut d\u2019Estudis Regionals i Metropolitans de Barcelona (IERMB) (2020). Enquesta de Mobilitat en Dia Feiner 2019 (EMEF 2019). La mobilitat a l\u2019\u00e0mbit del Sistema Integrat de Mobilitat Metropolitana de Barcelona, IERMB. Available online: https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210922230839\/https:\/\/observatorimobilitat.atm.cat\/docs-observatori\/enquestes-de-mobilitat\/Enquestes_ambit_ATM\/EMEF\/2019\/EMEF_2019_Informe_SIMMB.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Tilg, G., Bogenberger, K., Amb\u00fchl, L., and Men\u00e9ndez, M. (2020, January 26\u201328). Generating and calibrating large-scale, mesoscopic SUMO network. Proceedings of the SUMO User Conference, Online."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schweizer, J., Poliziani, C., Rupi, F., Morgano, D., and Magi, M. (2021). Building a Large-Scale Micro-Simulation Transport Scenario Using Big Data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10030165"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2008.80","article-title":"OpenStreet map: User-generated street maps","volume":"7","author":"Haklay","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1068\/b35097","article-title":"How good is volunteered geographical information? A comparative study of OpenStreetMap and ordnance survey datasets","volume":"37","author":"Haklay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, J., Sarkar, D., and Palen, L. (2019). Corporate editors in the evolving landscape of OpenStreetMap. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8050232"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2017.05.004","article-title":"OSMnx: New methods for acquiring, constructing, analyzing, and visualizing complex street networks","volume":"65","author":"Boeing","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"OpenStreetMap Contributors (2021, March 25). Planet Dump for the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (RMB). Available online: https:\/\/planet.osm.org."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"OpenStreetMap Contributors (2021, August 03). Wiki OpenStreetMap Overpass API\/Overpass QL [Computer Software]\u2014OpenStreetMap Wiki. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.openstreetmap.org\/w\/index.php?title=Overpass_API\/Overpass_QL&oldid=2180487."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2021, August 05). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Netconvert\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/netconvert.html."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.29007\/t7pk","article-title":"Road network extraction with OSMNx and SUMOPy","volume":"2","author":"Dingil","year":"2018","journal-title":"EPiC Ser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Maxar (2021, March 25). Maxar (c) Premium Imagery for the Area of Barcelona. Background Layer Available for OpenStreetMap, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/edit."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Instituto Geogr\u00e1fico Nacional de Espa\u00f1a (IGN), and Centro Nacional de Informaci\u00f3n Geogr\u00e1fica (CNIG) (2021, March 25). Plan Nacional de Ortofotografia A\u00e9rea (PNOA); Background Layer Available for OpenStreetMap, 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/edit."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Esri (2021, March 25). Esri (c) World Imagery for the Area of Barcelona. Sources: Esri; DigitalGlobe; GeoEye; I-cubed; USDA FSA; USGS; AEX; Getmapping; Aerogrid; IGN; IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community. Background Layer Available for OpenStreetMap, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/edit."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Mapbox (2021, March 25). Mapbox (c) Satellite Imagery for the Area of Barcelona. Sources: NASA; USGS; Other Commercial Providers. Background Layer Available for OpenStreetMap, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/edit."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Grab Holdings (2021, March 25). OpenStreetCam (KartaView) for the Area of Barcelona. Photo Overlay Data Available for OpenStreetMap, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/edit."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Mapillary and Contributors (2021, March 25). Mapillary (c) Imagery for the Area of Barcelona. Photo Overlay Data Available for OpenStreetMap, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/edit."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"(2021, August 05). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Netedit\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/Netedit\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Koonce, P., and Rodegerdts, L. (2008). Traffic Signal Timing Manual."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Calvet, F., and Torre, M. (2020). Obtenci\u00f3 De Matrius Origen-Destinaci\u00f3 (OD) a Partir de Dades de Telefonia M\u00f2bil. M2019, Generalitat de Catalunya."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-its:20060020","article-title":"Deriving origin-destination data from a mobile phone network","volume":"1","author":"Caceres","year":"2007","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"574","article-title":"Exploring strengths and weaknesses of mobility inference from mobile phone data vs. travel surveys","volume":"16","author":"Romero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. A Transp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Institut d\u2019Estudis Regionals i Metropolitans de Barcelona (IERMB) (2020). Enquesta de Mobilitat en Dia Feiner 2019 (EMEF 2019). La mobilitat a Barcelona, IERMB. Available online: https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20210923095118\/https:\/\/observatorimobilitat.atm.cat\/docs-observatori\/enquestes-de-mobilitat\/Enquestes_ambit_ATM\/EMEF\/2019\/EMEF_2019_Informe_BCN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2021, August 05). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others District\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/Tools\/District.html."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2018.12.211","article-title":"Fusing mobile phone data with other data sources to generate input OD matrices for transport models","volume":"37","author":"Montero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melakessou, F., Derrmann, T., and Engel, T. (2015, January 2\u20136). Asymmetry analysis of inbound\/outbound car traffic load distribution in Luxembourg. Proceedings of the MobiWac 2015\u201413th ACM International Symposium on Mobility Management and Wireless Access, Cancun, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1145\/2810362.2810374"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2021, August 06). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Od2trips\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/od2trips.html."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2021, August 06). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Duarouter\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/duarouter.html."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2021, August 06). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Routes\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/Tools\/Routes.html."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciuffo, B., Punzo, V., and Torrieri, V. (2008). Comparison of simulation-based and model-based calibrations of traffic-flow microsimulation models. Transp. Res. Rec., 36\u201344.","DOI":"10.3141\/2088-05"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Vavasis, S.A. (1991). Nonlinear Optimization: Complexity Issues, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Lieberman, E., and Rathi, A.K. (1996). Traffic Simulation, Traffic Flow Theory."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"5597","article-title":"Metastable states in a microscopic model of traffic flow","volume":"55","author":"Krauss","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E\u2014Stat. Phys. Plasmas Fluids Relat. Interdiscip. Top."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"105","article-title":"SUMO\u2019s Lane-changing model","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Behrisch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 2nd SUMO Conference 2014, Berlin, Germany, 15\u201316 May 2014"},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Mock, P., and D\u00edaz, S. (2020). European vehicle market statistics. Pocketbook 2020\/21, International Council on Clean Transportation Europe."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2016.07.002","article-title":"City of Motorcycles. On how objective and subjective factors are behind the rise of two-wheeled mobility in Barcelona","volume":"52","author":"Marquet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Lobo, S.C., Neumeier, S., Fernandez, E.M.G., and Facchi, C. (2020). InTAS\u2014The Ingolstadt traffic scenario for SUMO. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"(2021, August 06). German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Others Why Vehicles Are Teleporting\u2014SUMO Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/sumo.dlr.de\/docs\/Simulation\/Why_Vehicles_are_teleporting.html."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"325","article-title":"Some theoretical aspects of road traffic","volume":"1","author":"Wardrop","year":"1952","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1287\/trsc.11.3.253","article-title":"On Stochastic Models of Traffic Assignment","volume":"11","author":"Daganzo","year":"1977","journal-title":"Transp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198106196400109","article-title":"Stochastic Heuristic Dynamic Assignment Based on AIMSUN Microscopic Traffic Simulator","volume":"1964","author":"Casas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Cascetta, E., Nuzzolo, A., Russo, F., and Vitetta, A. (1996, January 24\u201326). A modified Logit Route Choice Model Overcoming Path Overlapping Problems. Specification and Some Calibration Results. Proceedings of the Transportation & Traffic Theory: 13th International Symposium on Transportation & Traffic Theory, Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Gawron, C. (1999). Simulation-Based Traffic Assignment: Computing User Equilibria in Large Street Networks. [Ph.D. Thesis, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakult\u00e4t]."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batty, M. (2013). The New Science of Cities, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9399.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2018.1535121","article-title":"Using multiple scale spatio-temporal patterns for validating spatially explicit agent-based models","volume":"33","author":"Kang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.1959.1104847","article-title":"On adaptive control processes","volume":"4","author":"Bellman","year":"1958","journal-title":"IRE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.3233\/IDA-2007-11508","article-title":"Toward accurate dynamic time warping in linear time and space","volume":"11","author":"Salvador","year":"2007","journal-title":"Intell. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"(2021, May 16). Ajuntament de Barcelona Mobility Gauging Detail of the City of Barcelona\u2014Datasets. Available online: https:\/\/opendata-ajuntament.barcelona.cat\/data\/en\/dataset\/aforaments-detall."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtst.2017.05.001","article-title":"Calibration of microscopic traffic simulation models using metaheuristic algorithms","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Transp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Ministerio de Fomento (2014). NS 5\/2.014. Prescripciones Y Recomendaciones T\u00e9cnicas Para La Realizaci\u00f3n De Estudios De Tr\u00e1fico De Los Estudios Informativos, Anteproyectos Y Proyectos De Carreteras, Ministerio de Fomento."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2017.01.025","article-title":"Estimating the impacts of climate change on crop yields and N2O emissions for conventional and no-tillage in Southwestern Ontario, Canada","volume":"159","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1007\/s10705-015-9688-3","article-title":"Simulation of long-term spring wheat yields, soil organic C, N and water dynamics using DSSAT-CSM in a semi-arid region of the Canadian prairies","volume":"101","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Department for Transport (UK Government) (2020). TAG UNIT M3.1: Highway Assignment Modelling, Department for Transport."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Dowling, R., Skabardonis, A., and Alexiadis, V. (2004). Traffic Analysis Toolbox Volume III: Guidelines for Applying Traffic Microsimulation Modeling Software."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trb.2008.02.002","article-title":"Existence of urban-scale macroscopic fundamental diagrams: Some experimental findings","volume":"42","author":"Geroliminis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part B Methodol."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Amb\u00fchl, L., Loder, A., Menendez, M., and Axhausen, K.W. (2017). Empirical Macroscopic Fundamental Diagrams New insights from loop detector and floating car data. TRB 96th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, Transportation Research Board."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Hall, F.L. (1996). Traffic Stream Characteristics. Traffic Flow Theory, US Federal Highway Administration."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Shafto, M., Conroy, M., Doyle, R., Glaessgen, E., Kemp, C., LeMoigne, J., and Wang, L. (2012). DRAFT Modelling, Simulation, Information Technology & Processing Roadmap\u2014Technology Area 11."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2015.06.141","article-title":"About the importance of autonomy and digital twins for the future of manufacturing","volume":"48","author":"Rosen","year":"2015","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108952","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2998358","article-title":"Digital Twin: Enabling Technologies, Challenges and Open Research","volume":"8","author":"Fuller","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, P., Yang, M., Peng, Y., Zhu, J., Ju, R., and Yin, Q. (2019). Sensor Control in Anti-Submarine Warfare\u2014A Digital Twin and Random Finite Sets Based Approach. Entropy, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/e21080767"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmsy.2020.06.017","article-title":"Review of digital twin about concepts, technologies, and industrial applications","volume":"58","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160021","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0021","article-title":"Understanding individual routing behaviour","volume":"13","author":"Lima","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-021-00118-8","article-title":"A new computational model for human navigation","volume":"1","author":"Alessandretti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-021-00130-y","article-title":"Vector-based pedestrian navigation in cities","volume":"1","author":"Bongiorno","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, L., Nochta, T., Tang, J., and Schooling, J. (2022). More Than One Twin: An Ecology of Model Applications in East London. Digital Twins for Smart Cities\u2014Conceptualization, Challenges & Practices, Institution of Civil Engineers.","DOI":"10.1680\/dtsc.66007"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-019-02849-1","article-title":"Make more digital twins","volume":"573","author":"Tao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sepasgozar, S.M.E. (2021). Differentiating digital twin from digital shadow: Elucidating a paradigm shift to expedite a smart, sustainable built environment. Buildings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings11040151"},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"Arcaute, E., Barthelemy, M., Batty, M., Caldarelli, G., Gershenson, C., Helbing, D., Moreno, Y., Ramasco, J.J., Rozenblat, C., and S\u00e1nchez, A. (2021, December 10). Future Cities: Why Digital Twins Need to Take Complexity Science on Board [Preprint]. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/354446988_Future_Cities_Why_Digital_Twins_Need_to_Take_Complexity_Science_on_Board."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helbing, D., Fanitabasi, F., Giannotti, F., H\u00e4nggli, R., Hausladen, C.I., van den Hoven, J., Mahajan, S., Pedreschi, D., and Pournaras, E. (2021). Ethics of Smart Cities: Towards Value-Sensitive Design and Co-Evolving City Life. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132011162"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04019045","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000741","article-title":"Smart City Digital Twin\u2013Enabled Energy Management: Toward Real-Time Urban Building Energy Benchmarking","volume":"36","author":"Francisco","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Manag. Eng."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruohomaki, T., Airaksinen, E., Huuska, P., Kesaniemi, O., Martikka, M., and Suomisto, J. (2018, January 25\u201327). Smart City Platform Enabling Digital Twin. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Intelligent Systems 2018: Theory, Research and Innovation in Applications, Funchal, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IS.2018.8710517"},{"key":"ref_121","first-page":"63","article-title":"Mikroskopische Modellierung der Personenverkehrsnachfrage auf Basis von Zeitverwendungstageb\u00fcchern","volume":"Volume 81","author":"Varschen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 7. Aachener Kolloqium \u201cMobilit\u00e4t und Stadt\u201d (AMUS 2006)"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2017.2666585","article-title":"Luxembourg SUMO Traffic (LuST) Scenario: Traffic Demand Evaluation","volume":"9","author":"Frank","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/11\/1\/24\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:56:20Z","timestamp":1760169380000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/11\/1\/24"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi11010024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi11010024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,30]]}}}