{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:54:49Z","timestamp":1760151289888,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,4]],"date-time":"2022-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646352000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aboveground biomass, volume, and basal area are among the most important structural attributes in forestry. Direct measurements are cost-intensive and time-consuming, especially for old-growth forests exhibiting a complex structure over a rugged topography. We defined a methodology to optimize the plot size and the (total) sampling area, allowing for structural attributes with a tolerable error to be estimated. The plot size was assessed by analyzing the semivariogram of a CHM model derived via UAV laser scanning, while the sampling area was based on the calculation of the absolute relative error as a function of allometric relationships. The allometric relationships allowed the structural attributes from trees\u2019 height to be derived. The validation was based on the positioning of a number of trees via total station and GNSS surveys. Since high trees occlude the GNSS signal transmission, a strategy to facilitate the positioning was to fix the solution using the GLONASS constellation alone (showing the highest visibility during the survey), and then using the GPS constellation to increase the position accuracy (up to PDOP~5\u221210). The tree heights estimated via UAV laser scanning were strongly correlated (r2 = 0.98, RMSE = 2.80 m) with those measured in situ. Assuming a maximum absolute relative error in the estimation of the structural attribute (20% within this work), the proposed methodology allowed the portion of the forest surface (\u226460%) to be sampled to be quantified to obtain a low average error in the calculation of the above mentioned structural attributes (\u226413%).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi11030168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]],"date-time":"2022-03-06T20:38:16Z","timestamp":1646599096000},"page":"168","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Optimizing the Sampling Area across an Old-Growth Forest via UAV-Borne Laser Scanning, GNSS, and Radial Surveying"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1333-7417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastiano","family":"Sferlazza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2778-4680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonino","family":"Maltese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8458-0676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gino","family":"Dardanelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0921-0103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donato Salvatore","family":"La Mela Veca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1795","DOI":"10.1139\/x95-194","article-title":"Using Differential GPS for Forest Traverse Surveys","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2021-763-2021","article-title":"A Case Study of The Application of Hand-Held Mobile Laser Scanning in The Planning of An Italian Forest (Alpe Di Catenaia, Tuscany)","volume":"XLIII-B2-2021","author":"Sofia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krause, S., Sanders, T.G.M., Mund, J.-P., and Greve, K. (2019). UAV-Based Photogrammetric Tree Height Measurement for Intensive Forest Monitoring. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11070758"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oneear.2020.05.001","article-title":"Applications in Remote Sensing to Forest Ecology and Management","volume":"2","author":"Lechner","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Earth"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1080\/17445647.2021.1962751","article-title":"Forest Accessibility, Madonie Mountains (Northern Sicily, Italy): Implementing a GIS Decision Support System","volume":"17","author":"Sferlazza","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Maps"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7160","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2308208","article-title":"An Assessment of the Repeatability of Automatic Forest Inventory Metrics Derived From UAV-Borne Laser Scanning Data","volume":"52","author":"Wallace","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"139","article-title":"Challenges to Estimating Tree Height via LiDAR in Closed-Canopy Forests: A Parable from Western Oregon","volume":"56","author":"Gatziolis","year":"2010","journal-title":"For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"132","article-title":"Testing and Evaluating Different LiDAR-Derived Canopy Height Model Generation Methods for Tree Height Estimation","volume":"71","author":"Mielcarek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1699(02)00121-7","article-title":"Estimating Plot-Level Tree Heights with Lidar: Local Filtering with a Canopy-Height Based Variable Window Size","volume":"37","author":"Popescu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.11.008","article-title":"Is Field-Measured Tree Height as Reliable as Believed\u2014A Comparison Study of Tree Height Estimates from Field Measurement, Airborne Laser Scanning and Terrestrial Laser Scanning in a Boreal Forest","volume":"147","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-027","article-title":"Measuring Individual Tree Crown Diameter with Lidar and Assessing Its Influence on Estimating Forest Volume and Biomass","volume":"29","author":"Popescu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s00468-006-0119-6","article-title":"Estimating Canopy Structure of Douglas-Fir Forest Stands from Discrete-Return LiDAR","volume":"21","author":"Coops","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trees-Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.03.025","article-title":"Estimating Individual Tree Leaf Area in Loblolly Pine Plantations Using LiDAR-Derived Measurements of Height and Crown Dimensions","volume":"213","author":"Roberts","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Cimarras, A., Manzanera, J.A., and Valbuena, R. (2021). Analysis of Mediterranean Vegetation Fuel Type Changes Using Multitemporal Lidar. Forests, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/f12030335"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-87007-2_10","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Derived Canopy Gaps in the Old-Growth Beech Forest of Mount Pollinello (Italy): Preliminary Results","volume":"Volume 12955","author":"Gervasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Computational Science and Its Applications\u2014ICCSA 2021"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.5849\/njaf.12-015","article-title":"Estimating Aboveground Biomass and Average Annual Wood Biomass Increment with Airborne Leaf-on and Leaf-off Lidar in Great Lakes Forest Types","volume":"30","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"North. J. Appl. For."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"145","article-title":"Modeling Mediterranean Forest Structure Using Airborne Laser Scanning Data","volume":"57","author":"Bottalico","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.11.010","article-title":"Comparing Echo-Based and Canopy Height Model-Based Metrics for Enhancing Estimation of Forest Aboveground Biomass in a Model-Assisted Framework","volume":"174","author":"Chirici","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20124503","article-title":"Airborne Laser Scanning to Support Forest Resource Management under Alpine, Temperate and Mediterranean Environments in Italy","volume":"45","author":"Corona","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00290-5","article-title":"Predicting Forest Stand Characteristics with Airborne Scanning Laser Using a Practical Two-Stage Procedure and Field Data","volume":"80","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2007.06.022","article-title":"Estimating Biomass of Individual Pine Trees Using Airborne Lidar","volume":"31","author":"Popescu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.3390\/f5050936","article-title":"Analysis of the Influence of Plot Size and LiDAR Density on Forest Structure Attribute Estimates","volume":"5","author":"Ruiz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Forests"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"419","article-title":"Estimation of Tree Height and Stem Volume on Plots Using Airborne Laser Scanning","volume":"49","author":"Holmgren","year":"2003","journal-title":"For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1080\/02827581.2010.496739","article-title":"Advances and Emerging Issues in National Forest Inventories","volume":"25","author":"McRoberts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4051190","article-title":"Advances in Forest Inventory Using Airborne Laser Scanning","volume":"4","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maltamo, M., N\u00e6sset, E., and Vauhkonen, J. (2014). Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning: Concepts and Case Studies, Springer. Managing Forest Ecosystems.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8663-8"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"162","article-title":"Forest Inventories by LiDAR Data: A Comparison of Single Tree Segmentation and Metric-Based Methods for Inventories of a Heterogeneous Temperate Forest","volume":"42","author":"Latifi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.2016.1207484","article-title":"Remote Sensing Technologies for Enhancing Forest Inventories: A Review","volume":"42","author":"White","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1367","article-title":"Predicting Forest Stand Characteristics with Airborne Scanning Lidar","volume":"66","author":"Means","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-012-9587-2","article-title":"Multi-Scale Drivers of Spatial Variation in Old-Growth Forest Carbon Density Disentangled with Lidar and an Individual-Based Landscape Model","volume":"15","author":"Seidl","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2016.03.035","article-title":"Can Airborne Laser Scanning Assist in Mapping and Monitoring Natural Forests?","volume":"369","author":"Gobakken","year":"2016","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.02.002","article-title":"Comparison of Airborne Laser Scanning and Digital Stereo Imagery for Characterizing Forest Canopy Gaps in Coastal Temperate Rainforests","volume":"208","author":"White","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2009.01.053","article-title":"Silviculture for Old-Growth Attributes","volume":"258","author":"Bauhus","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.11.020","article-title":"Commonality and Variability in the Structural Attributes of Moist Temperate Old-Growth Forests: A Global Review","volume":"291","author":"Burrascano","year":"2013","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lindenmayer, D.B., and Franklin, J.F. (2002). Conserving Forest Biodiversity: A Comprehensive Multiscaled Approach, Island Press."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.72","article-title":"Variability and Dynamics of Old-Growth Forests in the Circumboreal Zone: Implications for Conservation, Restoration and Management","volume":"45","author":"Shorohova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Silva. Fenn."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02692:20","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.2692","article-title":"Linking Tree Physiological Constraints with Predictions of Carbon and Water Fluxes at an Old-Growth Coniferous Forest","volume":"10","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1890\/14-1154.1","article-title":"Carbon Storage in Old-Growth Forests of the Mid-Atlantic: Toward Better Understanding the Eastern Forest Carbon Sink","volume":"96","author":"McGarvey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/11263500903560710","article-title":"Monitoring and Assessing Old-Growth Forest Stands by Plot Sampling","volume":"144","author":"Corona","year":"2010","journal-title":"Plant. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"966","article-title":"Structure, Spatio-Temporal Dynamics and Disturbance Regime of the Mixed Beech\u2013Silver Fir\u2013Norway Spruce Old-Growth Forest of Biogradska Gora (Montenegro)","volume":"149","author":"Motta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plant. Biosyst.-An. Int. J. Deal. All Asp. Plant. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2015.02.037","article-title":"Quantifying the Recovery of Old-Growth Attributes in Forest Reserves: A First Reference for France","volume":"346","author":"Paillet","year":"2015","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009655821836","article-title":"The Use of Replicated Plot, Line and Point Sampling for Estimating Species Abundance and Ecological Diversity","volume":"5","author":"Barabesi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. Ecol. Stat."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2011.08.025","article-title":"Tree Size Distribution at Increasing Spatial Scales Converges to the Rotated Sigmoid Curve in Two Old-Growth Beech Stands of the Italian Apennines","volume":"262","author":"Alessandrini","year":"2011","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.10.008","article-title":"Simulated Impact of Sample Plot Size and Co-Registration Error on the Accuracy and Uncertainty of LiDAR-Derived Estimates of Forest Stand Biomass","volume":"115","author":"Frazer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2015.02.011","article-title":"Quantifying the Effect of Sampling Plot Size on the Estimation of Structural Indicators in Old-Growth Forest Stands","volume":"346","author":"Lombardi","year":"2015","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"294","article-title":"Assessing Forest Naturalness","volume":"58","author":"McRoberts","year":"2012","journal-title":"For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1139\/X09-025","article-title":"Assessing Effects of Positioning Errors and Sample Plot Size on Biophysical Stand Properties Derived from Airborne Laser Scanner Data","volume":"39","author":"Gobakken","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.09.009","article-title":"Lidar Remote Sensing of Forest Biomass: A Scale-Invariant Estimation Approach Using Airborne Lasers","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.4129\/ifm.2011.5.01","article-title":"Caratteri Strutturali Di Potenziali Foreste Vetuste Appenniniche: Risultati Preliminari","volume":"66","author":"Calamini","year":"2011","journal-title":"L\u2019Italia For. E Mont."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10342-014-0830-6","article-title":"Development of Old-Growth Characteristics in Uneven-Aged Forests of the Italian Alps","volume":"134","author":"Motta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2728","DOI":"10.1139\/X08-110","article-title":"Gap Disturbance Regime in an Old-Growth Fagus\u2013Abies Forest in the Dinaric Mountains, Bosnia-Herzegovina","volume":"38","author":"Nagel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Badalamenti, E., La Mantia, T., La Mantia, G., Cairone, A., and La Mela Veca, D.S. (2017). Living and Dead Aboveground Biomass in Mediterranean Forests: Evidence of Old-Growth Traits in a Quercus Pubescens Willd. s.l. Stand. Forests, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/f8060187"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Rivas-Mart\u00ednez, S., Penas, A., and D\u00edaz, T. (2004). Biogeographic Map of Europe, Cartographic service."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2014). Food and Agriculture Organization World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014: International Soil Classification System for Naming Soils and Creating Legends for Soil Maps, FAO."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-3-139-2014","article-title":"Automatic Single Palm Tree Detection in Plantations Using UAV-Based Photogrammetric Point Clouds","volume":"XL\u20133","author":"Kattenborn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1080\/22797254.2018.1474722","article-title":"Single-Tree Detection in High-Density LiDAR Data from UAV-Based Survey","volume":"51","author":"Balsi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04015007:13","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000164","article-title":"Comparison of Various GPS Processing Solutions toward an Efficient Validation of the Hellenic Vertical Network: The ELEVATION Project","volume":"142","author":"Andritsanos","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"10640","article-title":"Comparison of GPS Commercial Software Packages to Processing Static Baselines up to 30 Km","volume":"10","author":"Mageed","year":"2015","journal-title":"ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"28","article-title":"Geomatic Applications Tourban Park in Palermo","volume":"10","author":"Dardanelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geogr. Tech."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Goad, C.C. (1974, January 12\u201317). A Modified Hopfield Tropospheric Refraction Correction Model. Paper presented at the Fall Annual Meeting American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4487","DOI":"10.1029\/JC074i018p04487","article-title":"Two-Quartic Tropospheric Refractivity Profile for Correcting Satellite Data","volume":"74","author":"Hopfield","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3227","DOI":"10.1029\/95JB03048","article-title":"Global Mapping Functions for the Atmosphere Delay at Radio Wavelengths","volume":"101","author":"Niell","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. B Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"9","article-title":"Gemini North r\u2019 Band Imaging of the Keck II Laser","volume":"Volume 7736","author":"Ellerbroek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the SPIE Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2022, February 21). Trimble GNSS Planning. Available online: https:\/\/www.gnssplanning.com\/#\/settings."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.3832\/ifor2424-011","article-title":"Effects of Traditional Forest Management on Carbon Storage in a Mediterranean Holm Oak (Quercus Ilex L.) Coppice","volume":"11","author":"Sferlazza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Iforest-Biogeosci. For."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, J., Anagnostakis, S., and Ferrandino, F. (1999). Stand Dynamics in Connecticut Hardwood Forests: The Old Series Plots (1927\u20131997), Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.51287"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1007\/s10342-011-0481-9","article-title":"Aboveground Tree Volume and Phytomass Prediction Equations for Forest Species in Italy","volume":"130","author":"Tabacchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Forest Res."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Meyer, T., Bean, J., Ferguson, C., and Naismith, J. (2002). The Effect of Broadleaf Canopies on Survey-Grade Horizontal GPS\/GLONASS Measurements, UCONN. Department of Natural Resources and the Environment Articles."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-006-0094-3","article-title":"Pedestrian Navigation with High Sensitivity GPS Receivers and MEMS","volume":"11","author":"Lachapelle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pers. Ubiquitous Comput."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"59","article-title":"Tropical Forest Tree Positioning Accuracy: A Comparison of Low Cost GNSS-Enabled Devices","volume":"12","author":"Fauzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109397","article-title":"Practical Applicability of Processing Static, Short-Observation-Time Raw GNSS Measurements Provided by a Smartphone under Tree Vegetation","volume":"178","author":"Varga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Y., Feng, Z., Mannan, A., Khan, T.U., Shen, C., and Saeed, S. (2018). Estimating Tree Position, Diameter at Breast Height, and Tree Height in Real-Time Using a Mobile Phone with RGB-D SLAM. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111845"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3218","DOI":"10.3390\/f6093218","article-title":"Accuracy of Kinematic Positioning Using Global Satellite Navigation Systems under Forest Canopies","volume":"6","author":"Kaartinen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Forests"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.74.5.661","article-title":"Performance of GPS Precise Point Positioning Under Conifer Forest Canopies","volume":"74","author":"Gjevestad","year":"2008","journal-title":"Photogramm Eng Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.5424\/sjar\/2010084-1242","article-title":"Accuracy and Precision of GPS Receivers under Forest Canopies in a Mountainous Environment","volume":"8","author":"Valbuena","year":"2010","journal-title":"Span. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"43","article-title":"GNSS CORS Network of the University of Palermo: Design and First Analysis of Data","volume":"15","author":"Dardanelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geog. Techn."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0902-7","article-title":"Regional Integration of Long-Term National Dense GNSS Network Solutions","volume":"23","author":"Kenyeres","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dardanelli, G., Maltese, A., Pipitone, C., Pisciotta, A., and Lo Brutto, M. (2021). Nrtk, Ppp or Static, That Is the Question. Testing Different Positioning Solutions for Gnss Survey. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071406"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mikulski, J. (2011). Modern Transport. Telematics: 11th International Conference on Transport. Systems Telematics, TST 2011, Katowice-Ustron, Poland, October 19\u201322, 2011, Selected Papers, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-24660-9"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Kissam, P. (1981). Surveying for Civil. Engineers, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(98)00009-4","article-title":"Determination of Terrain Models in Wooded Areas with Airborne Laser Scanner Data","volume":"53","author":"Kraus","year":"1998","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1139\/x94-176","article-title":"Geostatistically Modeling Stem Size and Increment in an Old-Growth Forest","volume":"24","author":"Biondi","year":"1994","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.14214\/sf.a9243","article-title":"Statistical Opportunities for Comparing Stand Structural Heterogeneity in Managed and Primeval Forests: An Example from Boreal Spruce Forest in Southern Finland","volume":"30","author":"Kuuluvainen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Silva. Fennica"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0587.1998.tb00670.x","article-title":"Structural Heterogeneity and Spatial Autocorrelation in a Natural Mature Pinus Sylvestris Dominated Forest","volume":"21","author":"Kuuluvainen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/s10342-009-0263-9","article-title":"Spatial Structure of Deciduous Forest Stands with Contrasting Human Influence in Northwest Spain","volume":"128","author":"Rozas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Forest Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3305","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600993413","article-title":"Estimating Tree Crown Size with Spatial Information of High Resolution Optical Remotely Sensed Imagery","volume":"28","author":"Song","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"40","article-title":"Valutazione dell\u2019apporto della costellazione GLONASS nel posizionamento NRTK con ricevitori GNSS geodetici","volume":"15","author":"Dardanelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"GEOmedia"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B4-2020-123-2020","article-title":"Gnss Satellite Visibility Analysis Based on 3d Spatial Information in Urban Areas","volume":"XLIII-B4-2020","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Evans, J.D. (1996). Straightforward Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, Brooks\/Cole Pub. Co."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/11\/3\/168\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:31:54Z","timestamp":1760135514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/11\/3\/168"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,4]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi11030168"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi11030168","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,4]]}}}