{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T15:39:48Z","timestamp":1779291588315,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,31]],"date-time":"2023-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675123200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Arkansas INBRE","award":["# 5P20 GM103429"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["# 5P20 GM103429"]}]},{"name":"Arkansas INBRE","award":["# 42071379"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["# 42071379"]}]},{"name":"Advancement of Undergraduate Research in the Sciences (AURS) Research Award at the University of Central Arkansas","award":["# 5P20 GM103429"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["# 5P20 GM103429"]}]},{"name":"Advancement of Undergraduate Research in the Sciences (AURS) Research Award at the University of Central Arkansas","award":["# 42071379"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["# 42071379"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["# 5P20 GM103429"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["# 5P20 GM103429"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["# 42071379"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["# 42071379"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The COVID-19 pandemic has posed numerous challenges to human society. Previous studies explored multiple factors in virus transmission. Yet, their impacts on COVID-19 are not universal and vary across geographical regions. In this study, we thoroughly quantified the spatiotemporal associations of 49 health, socioeconomic, demographic, and environmental factors with COVID-19 at the county level in Arkansas, US. To identify the associations, we applied the ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regression, spatial lag model (SLM), spatial error model (SEM), and multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) model. To reveal how such associations change across different COVID-19 times, we conducted the analyses for each season (i.e., spring, summer, fall, and winter) from 2020 to 2021. We demonstrate that there are different driving factors along with different COVID-19 variants, and their magnitudes change spatiotemporally. However, our results identify that adult obesity has a positive association with the COVID-19 incidence rate over entire Arkansas, thus confirming that people with obesity are vulnerable to COVID-19. Humidity consistently negatively affects COVID-19 across all seasons, denoting that increasing humidity could reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection. In addition, diabetes shows roles in the spread of both early COVID-19 variants and Delta, while humidity plays roles in the spread of Delta and Omicron. Our study highlights the complexity of how multifactor affect COVID-19 in different seasons and counties in Arkansas. These findings are useful for informing local health planning (e.g., vaccine rollout, mask regulation, and testing\/tracing) for the residents in Arkansas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12020045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]],"date-time":"2023-02-01T03:22:47Z","timestamp":1675221767000},"page":"45","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Geospatial Modeling of Health, Socioeconomic, Demographic, and Environmental Factors with COVID-19 Incidence Rate in Arkansas, US"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8131-1649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaqian","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, AR 72034, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paul J.","family":"Seminara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, AR 72034, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4323-382X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiao","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4010-6163","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Di","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fang","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2099-755X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chao","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HEOA Group, West China School of Public Health,  West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"286","article-title":"Staying at Home Is a Privilege: Evidence from Fine-Grained Mobile Phone Location Data in the United States during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"112","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. 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