{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T03:30:40Z","timestamp":1790739040162,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]],"date-time":"2023-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677456000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013209","name":"Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1550"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1550"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013209","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent Digital Surface, Elevation, and Bathymetric Models (DSM\/DEM\/DBM) aim to provide high-resolution and accurate height and depth information needed for a variety of surveying, geodetic, geophysical, and other applications. In this study, first we aim to validate in two test areas some of the most used models, i.e., ASTER GDEM; AW3D30 DSM; Copernicus DEM; EU-DEM; GEBCO 2020; NASADEM HGT; SRTM15+ and SRTM Global, using GNSS; spirit leveling; and gravity measurements. The validation is performed along two traverses of 14.5 and 12.0 km each in Northern and Central Greece, respectively. Since these models are based on geoid heights obtained from global geopotential models, we also investigate their influence on the validation results. Next, we carry out comparisons between GEBCO 2020, SRTM15+, and the Greek Seas DTM, with depths derived from in situ coastal measurements in six different areas in Northern Greece. From the analysis, we conclude that the heights obtained from the Copernicus DEM provide the best overall results in terms of mean value and standard deviation while also showing consistent results in the two test areas. Similarly, the Greek Seas DTM shows better consistency with the measured depths in the coastal test areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12030099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,28]],"date-time":"2023-02-28T03:59:57Z","timestamp":1677556797000},"page":"99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Validation of Recent DSM\/DEM\/DBMs in Test Areas in Greece Using Spirit Leveling, GNSS, Gravity and Echo Sounding Measurements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1486-8284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vassilios N.","family":"Grigoriadis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Gravity Field Research and Applications (GravLab), Department of Geodesy and Surveying, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2709-963X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vassilios D.","family":"Andritsanos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geospatial Technologies Laboratory, Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3943-1767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios A.","family":"Natsiopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Gravity Field Research and Applications (GravLab), Department of Geodesy and Surveying, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chavanidis, K., Stampolidis, A., Kirmizakis, P., Tranos, M., Fedi, M., Pasteka, R., Al-Ramadan, K., Kaka, S., Tsokas, G.N., and Soupios, P. (2022). Gravity Survey on the Oil-Bearing Dammam Dome (Eastern Saudi Arabia) and Its Implications. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14030735"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-021-01507-7","article-title":"Collocation and FFT-based geoid estimation within the Colorado 1 cm geoid experiment","volume":"95","author":"Grigoriadis","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3875","DOI":"10.1007\/s13201-017-0539-z","article-title":"Geospatial tool-based morphometric analysis using SRTM data in Sarabanga Watershed, Cauvery River, Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India","volume":"7","author":"Arulbalaji","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1029\/2019EA000658","article-title":"Global Bathymetry and Topography at 15 Arc Sec: SRTM15+","volume":"6","author":"Tozer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16577","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JB900099","article-title":"Predicted seafloor topography of the New Zealand region: A nonlinear list squares inversion of satellite altimetry data","volume":"105","author":"Ramillien","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5334.1956","article-title":"Global Sea Floor Topography from Satellite Altimetry and Ship Depth Soundings","volume":"277","author":"Smith","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740830","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.740830","article-title":"Pan-European Satellite-Derived Coastal Bathymetry\u2014Review, User Needs and Future Services","volume":"8","author":"Cesbron","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111509","article-title":"Evaluation of ASTER GDEM2, SRTMv3.0, ALOS AW3D30 and TanDEM-X DEMs for the Peruvian Andes against highly accurate GNSS ground control points and geomorphological-hydrological metrics","volume":"237","author":"Viveen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2017.1343392","article-title":"Vertical accuracy evaluation of SRTM-GL1, GDEM-V2, AW3D30 and CartoDEM-V3.1 of 30-m resolution with dual frequency GNSS for lower Tapi Basin India","volume":"11","author":"Jain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mouratidis, A., and Ampatzidis, D. (2019). European Digital Elevation Model Validation against Extensive Global Navigation Satellite Systems Data and Comparison with SRTM DEM and ASTER GDEM in Central Macedonia (Greece). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8030108"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6205","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903401403","article-title":"SRTM 3\u2033 DEM (Versions 1, 2, 3, 4) Validation by Means of Extensive Kinematic GPS Measurements: A Case Study from North Greece","volume":"31","author":"Mouratidis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.77.2.157","article-title":"Validation of ASTER GDEM for the Area of Greece","volume":"77","author":"Chrysoulakis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C., Yang, S., and Li, Y. (2020). Accuracy Assessment and Correction of SRTM DEM Using ICESat\/GLAS Data under Data Coregistration. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12203435"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.02.028","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of ASTER, SRTM, ALOS, and TDX DEMs for Hispaniola and implications for mapping vulnerability to coastal flooding","volume":"225","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7966","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2019.1607982","article-title":"Vertical accuracy assessment of global digital elevation models and validation of gravity database heights in Niger","volume":"40","author":"Yahaya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-5-211-2017","article-title":"Validation of digital elevation models (DEMs) and comparison of geomorphic metrics on the southern Central Andean Plateau","volume":"5","author":"Purinton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2022.2094002","article-title":"Global DEMs Vary from One to Another: An Evaluation of Newly Released Copernicus, NASA and AW3D30 DEM on Selected Terrains of China Using ICESat-2 Altimetry Data","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2245","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12825","article-title":"LiDAR Point Cloud and ICESat-2 Evaluation of 1 Second Global Digital Elevation Models: Copernicus Wins","volume":"25","author":"Guth","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"141","article-title":"Validation of Sentinel-1A and AW3D30 DSMs for the Metropolitan Area of Istanbul, Turkey","volume":"86","author":"Sefercik","year":"2018","journal-title":"PFG\u2014J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Geoinf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mare\u0161ov\u00e1, J., Gdulov\u00e1, K., Pracn\u00e1, P., Moravec, D., G\u00e1bor, L., Pro\u0161ek, J., Bart\u00e1k, V., and Moudr\u00fd, V. (2021). Applicability of Data Acquisition Characteristics to the Identification of Local Artefacts in Global Digital Elevation Models: Comparison of the Copernicus and TanDEM-X DEMs. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193931"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112474","article-title":"Not all DEMs are equal: An evaluation of six globally available 30 m resolution DEMs with geodetic benchmarks and LiDAR in Mexico","volume":"261","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"49","article-title":"Vertical Accuracy of the SRTM DTED Level 1 of Crete","volume":"7","author":"Miliaresis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/22797254.2020.1774424","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of ALOS AW3D30 DSM and Comparison to ALOS PRISM DSM Created with Classical Photogrammetric Techniques","volume":"53","author":"Nikolakopoulos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Arvanitis, A., Basbas, S., Lafazani, P., Papadopoulou, M., Paraschakis, I., and Rossikopoulos, D. (2015). Special Issue for Emeritus Professor Myron Miridis\u2014Cartographies of Mind, Soul and Knowledge, School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. (In Greek)."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"NASA, METI, AIST, Japan Spacesystems, and U.S.\/Japan ASTER Science Team (2021, October 22). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003, Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5067\/ASTER\/ASTGTM.003."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B4-2020-183-2020","article-title":"Updates of \u2018AW3D30\u2019 ALOS Global Digital Surface Model with Other Open Access Datasets","volume":"XLIII-B4-2020","author":"Takaku","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS\u2014Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"DLR e.V., and Airbus Defense and Space GmbH (2021, May 20). Copernicus DEM GLO-30. Available online: https:\/\/spacedata.copernicus.eu."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"European Union, Copernicus Land Monitoring Service, European Environment Agency (2021, February 01). EU-DEM v1.1. Available online: https:\/\/land.copernicus.eu\/imagery-in-situ\/eu-dem\/eu-dem-v1.1."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Buckley, S.M., Agram, P.S., Belz, J.E., Crippen, R.E., Gurrola, E.M., Hensley, S., Kobrick, M., Lavalle, M., Martin, J.M., and Neumann, M. (2020). NASADEM, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2022, July 15). GEBCO Gridded Bathymetry Data. Available online: https:\/\/www.gebco.net\/data_and_products\/gridded_bathymetry_data\/."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"NASA (2021, May 21). NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Global 1 Arc Second. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5067\/MEaSUREs\/SRTM\/SRTMGL1.003."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Hellenic Navy Hydrographic Service (2021, March 24). Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the Greek Seas. Available online: https:\/\/www.hnhs.gr\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Lemoine, F.G., Kenyon, S.C., Factor, J.K., Trimmer, R.G., Pavlis, N.K., Chinn, D.S., Cox, C., Klosko, S.M., Luthcke, S.B., and Torrence, M.H. (1998). The Development of the Join NASA GSFC and NIMA Geopotential Model EGM96, NASA Technical Publication. 1998-206861."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sideris, M.G. (2009). Observing Our Changing Earth, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-85426-5"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B04406","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JB008916","article-title":"The Development and Evaluation of the Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008)","volume":"117","author":"Pavlis","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Jarvis, A., Reuter, H.I., Nelson, A., and Guevara, E. (2021, March 19). Hole-Filled SRTM for the Globe Version 4, Available from the CGIAR-CSI SRTM 90m Database. Available online: http:\/\/srtm.csi.cgiar.org."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Paradissis, D., Anastasiou, D., and Papanikolaou, X. (2013). Monitoring, Processing and Certification of the Permanent GNSS URANUS Network, Dionysos Satellite Observatory, National Technical University of Athens. (In Greek)."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"329","article-title":"Hellenic Terrestrial Reference System 2007 (HTRS07): A Regional Realization of ETRS89 over Greece in Support of HEPOS","volume":"69","author":"Katsampalos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bolletino Geod. Sci. Affin."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6109","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013098","article-title":"ITRF2014: A New Release of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame Modeling Nonlinear Station Motions","volume":"121","author":"Altamimi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Altamini, Z. (2021, March 19). EUREF Technical Note 1: Relationship and Transformation between the International and the European Terrestrial Reference Systems. Available online: http:\/\/etrs89.ensg.ign.fr\/pub\/EUREF-TN-1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Grigoriadis, V.N., Andritsanos, V.D., and Natsiopoulos, D. (2022). International Association of Geodesy Symposia, Springer."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-021-01541-5","article-title":"The permanent tide and the International Height Reference Frame IHRF","volume":"95","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02520477","article-title":"Impacts of geodynamic phenomena on systems for height and gravity","volume":"63","author":"Ekman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Bull. Geod."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., and Moritz, H. (2005). Physical Geodesy, Springer."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesa-Mingorance, J.L., and Ariza-L\u00f3pez, F.J. (2020). Accuracy Assessment of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs): A Critical Review of Practices of the Past Three Decades. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12162630"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-014-0681-6","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of remotely sensed global surface models using various land classes produced from Landsat data in Istanbul","volume":"24","author":"Yastikli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"International Hygrographic Organization (2022). IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys, Special Publication No. 44, International Hydrographic Bureau. [6.1.0 ed.]."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/3\/99\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:44:11Z","timestamp":1760121851000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/3\/99"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi12030099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi12030099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]]}}}