{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T00:34:50Z","timestamp":1785285290294,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]],"date-time":"2023-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681171200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Terrorism perpetrated in any country by either internal or external actors jeopardizes the country\u2019s security, economic growth, societal peace, and harmony. Hence, accurate modelling of terrorism has become a necessary component of the national security mission of most nations. This research extracted and analyzed high impact attacks (HIAs) perpetrated by terrorists in India and its neighboring countries since 1970 using the Global Terrorism Database (GTD). We evaluated the extraction efficacy of the Global Terrorism Index Impact Score (GTI-IS) against the GTD measure \u201cnkill\u201d using the iterative outlier analysis (IOA) heuristic. The heuristic identified 6117 common HIAs using nkill or GTI-IS attributes. GTI-IS extracted 1718 exclusive HIAs that nkill missed, while nkill extracted 2233 exclusive HIAs. We further classified the extracted HIAs into lethal and non-lethal attacks. Next, we conducted a rigorous spatiotemporal exploratory analysis of countries that reported the most HIAs. Though Afghanistan, India, and Sri Lanka exhibited global spatial autocorrelation, Pakistan did not. Ripley\u2019s G function suggested the recurrence of lethal attacks near other similar events. This analysis showed that lethal and non-lethal attacks in those countries follow different statistical distributions, which can aid in focused counterterrorism tactics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12040162","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T01:35:08Z","timestamp":1681263308000},"page":"162","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Modelling &amp; Analysis of High Impact Terrorist Attacks in India &amp; Its Neighbors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0738-7629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Prabal Pratap","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Industrial & Management Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4607-9020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deepu","family":"Philip","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Industrial & Management Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feinberg, M. (2021, August 31). Emerging Voices: Sovereignty in the Age of Global Terrorism\u2014What Is the Role of International Organizations?. Available online: http:\/\/opiniojuris.org\/2016\/08\/18\/emerging-voices-sovereignty-in-the-age-of-global-terrorism-what-is-the-role-of-international-organizations\/.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004299580"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keefer, P., and Loayza, N. (2008). Terrorism, Economic Development, and Political Openness, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511754388"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"153","article-title":"Terrorism in India: The unholy Neighbours","volume":"71","author":"Sakthivel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indian J. Political Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Schmid, A.P. (2013). The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research, Taylor & Francis Group. Routledge Handbooks; First Published in Paperback."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1080\/09546550701246817","article-title":"Introducing the Global Terrorism Database","volume":"19","author":"LaFree","year":"2007","journal-title":"Terror. Politi- Violence"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2022, March 21). START GTD Codebook. Available online: https:\/\/www.start.umd.edu\/gtd\/downloads\/Codebook.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1177\/20597991221144577","article-title":"An innovative color-coding scheme for terrorism threat advisory system","volume":"16","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Methodol. Innov."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1108\/S1572-8323(2014)0000022010","article-title":"Measuring Terrorism with the Global Terrorism Index","volume":"Volume 22","author":"Hyslop","year":"2014","journal-title":"Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hawkins, D.M. (1980). Identification of Outliers, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-3994-4"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Review on Outlier\/Anomaly Detection in Time Series Data","volume":"54","author":"Conde","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Ramachandran, K.M., and Tsokos, C.P. (2020). Mathematical Statistics with Applications in R, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2016.255216","article-title":"Iterative Outlier Removal: A Method for Identifying Outliers in Laboratory Recalibration Studies","volume":"62","author":"Parrinello","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2017.11.002","article-title":"Impact of public bus system on spatial burglary patterns in a Chinese urban context","volume":"89","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, P.P., and Philip, D. (2022). Extraction and Analysis of High Impact Attacks for Insights in Global Terrorism. Glob. Bus. Rev.","DOI":"10.1177\/09721509221129038"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"93","article-title":"Iterative outlier analysis heuristic to study high impact terror attacks of the Mena region and Europe","volume":"206","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saf. Secur. Eng. IX"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/09546550312331293047","article-title":"Weapon system selection and mass-casualty outcomes","volume":"15","author":"Palfy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Terror. Politi- Violence"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1080\/1057610X.2019.1700039","article-title":"Weapon of Choice: Terrorist Bombings in Armed Conflict","volume":"45","author":"Boyle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stud. Confl. Terror."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drake, C.J.M. (1998). Terrorists\u2019 Target Selection, Palgrave Macmillan.","DOI":"10.1057\/9780230374676"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1177\/0022343319829799","article-title":"The quality of terrorist violence: Explaining the logic of terrorist target choice","volume":"57","author":"Polo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Peace Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/07388940701643623","article-title":"Transnational Terrorism Hot Spots: Identification and Impact Evaluation","volume":"24","author":"Braithwaite","year":"2007","journal-title":"Confl. Manag. Peace Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"457","article-title":"Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis in a Geographic Information System Environment","volume":"47","author":"Haining","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. D (Stat.)"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chainey, S., and Ratcliffe, J. (2005). GIS and Crime Mapping, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118685181"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Rey, S., and Kang, W. (2022, December 30). Centrography. Available online: https:\/\/pysal.org\/notebooks\/explore\/pointpats\/centrography.html."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laurini, R. (2017). Geographic Knowledge Infrastructure, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-78548-243-4.50006-2"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1983.1056714","article-title":"On the shape of a set of points in the plane","volume":"29","author":"Edelsbrunner","year":"1983","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"5","article-title":"PySAL: A Python Library of Spatial Analytical Methods","volume":"37","author":"Rey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Rey, S.J., and Anselin, L. (2023, January 01). Libpysal v4.7.0 Manual. Available online: https:\/\/pysal.org\/libpysal\/generated\/libpysal.cg.alpha_shape_auto.html."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kitchin, R., and Thrift, N. (2009). International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1177\/0738894218789356","article-title":"The local geography of transnational terrorism","volume":"37","author":"Marineau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Confl. Manag. Peace Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Hijmans, R.J., and University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (2022, December 30). First-Level Administrative Divisions, Afghanistan, 2015 in EarthWorks. Available online: http:\/\/purl.stanford.edu\/zr035kz3919."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Hijmans, R.J., and University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (2022, December 30). First-Level Administrative Divisions, India, 2015 in EarthWorks. Available online: http:\/\/purl.stanford.edu\/mw277wc3858."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Hijmans, R.J., and University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (2022, December 30). First-Level Administrative Divisions, Pakistan, 2015 in EarthWorks. Available online: https:\/\/purl.stanford.edu\/st456dv9938."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Hijmans, R.J., and University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (2022, December 30). First-Level Administrative Divisions, Sri Lanka, 2015 in EarthWorks. Available online: https:\/\/earthworks.stanford.edu\/catalog\/stanford-zz954tj7022."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ripley, B.D. (1988). Statistical Inference for Spatial Processes, Cambridge University Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511624131"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rey, S.J., Arribas-Bel, D., and Levi, J. (2022, December 31). Wolf Point Pattern Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/geographicdata.science\/book\/notebooks\/08_point_pattern_analysis.html.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429292507-10"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Rey, S., Kang, W., Shao, H., Wolf, L.J., Seth, M., Gaboardi, J., and Arribas-Bel, D. (2022, December 31). Pysal\/Pointpats: Pointpats 2.1.0. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.3265637."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"van Rossum, G., and Drake, F.L. (2009). Python 3 Reference Manual, CreateSpace."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Reback, J., Jbrockmendel, V.D.B.J., McKinney, W., den Bossche, J.V., Augspurger, T., Cloud, P., Hawkins, S., and Roeschke, M. (2021, August 31). Pandas-Dev\/Pandas: Pandas 1.3.2. Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/5203279."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-019-0686-2","article-title":"SciPy 1.0: Fundamental Algorithms for Scientific Computing in Python","volume":"17","author":"Virtanen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02589501","article-title":"The significance probability of the smirnov two-sample test","volume":"3","author":"Hodges","year":"1958","journal-title":"Arkiv f\u00f6r Matematik"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Jordahl, K., den Bossche, J.V., Fleischmann, M., McBride, J., Wasserman, J., Richards, M., Badaracco, A.G., Snow, A.D., Gerard, J., and Tratner, J. (2023, January 01). Geopandas\/Geopandas: V0.12.1. Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/7262879."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2021, August 02). Wikipedia Empirical Distribution Function. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Empirical_distribution_function&oldid=1019063423."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Taskesen, E. (2022, January 16). Distfit\u2014Probability Density Fitting. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/erdogant\/distfit."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/4\/162\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:13:56Z","timestamp":1760123636000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/4\/162"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi12040162"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi12040162","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]}}}