{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T22:34:57Z","timestamp":1771367697314,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]],"date-time":"2023-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686009600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"TU Dresden"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In response to the call of the New Urban Agenda\u2014Habitat III for a reinvigoration of long-term and integrated planning towards sustainable urban development, this paper presents an empirical comparative study of planning practices based on the \u201csatellite city\u201d and \u201cnew town\u201d concepts in Tokyo and Shanghai to examine from a long-term perspective how well they have guided polycentric urban development at a time of massive population growth. We aim to deliver evidence-based contributions to boost the knowledge transfer between the Global North and the Global South. The paper adopts a multi-dimensional framework for the comparative analysis, including a review of long-term urban development policies and an inspection of the population distribution and extent of built-up areas using time-specific categorizations to map the spatiotemporal changes based on GHSL data. The comparative analysis shows that urban plans in Tokyo and Shanghai based on satellite cities and new towns as steering instruments for polycentric urban growth management have not lived up to the original aspirations. In fact, the intended steering of population distribution has essentially failed, despite the practical steps undertaken.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12060234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,7]],"date-time":"2023-06-07T01:38:41Z","timestamp":1686101921000},"page":"234","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["To What Extent Can Satellite Cities and New Towns Serve as a Steering Instrument for Polycentric Urban Expansion during Massive Population Growth?\u2014A Comparative Analysis of Tokyo and Shanghai"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Runzhu","family":"Gu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Building Climatology, Faculty of Architecture, TU Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8081-6752","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiqiu","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 8158540, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3413-7905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chika","family":"Takatori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 8158540, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2806-3121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hendrik","family":"Herold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development, 01217 Dresden, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9524-3560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoping","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Building Climatology, Faculty of Architecture, TU Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022, August 10). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision. Available online: https:\/\/population.un.org\/wup\/publications\/Files\/WUP2018-Report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United Nations (2022, August 10). New Urban Agenda\u2014Habitat III. Available online: https:\/\/habitat3.org\/the-new-urban-agenda."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1177\/0956247818815792","article-title":"Notes on a southern urban practice","volume":"31","author":"Bhan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Urban."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-2427.12274","article-title":"Who\u2019s afraid of postcolonial theory?","volume":"40","author":"Roy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Urban Reg. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098016634002","article-title":"Current debates in urban theory: A critical assessment","volume":"53","author":"Storper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakeman, R. (2016). Practicing Utopia\u2014An Intellectual History of the New Town Movement, The University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226346175.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1080\/13604813.2016.1166702","article-title":"The Aleph\u2013Jerusalem as critical learning","volume":"20","author":"Yiftachel","year":"2016","journal-title":"City"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.17645\/up.v1i4.727","article-title":"Shifting approaches to planning theory: Global North and South","volume":"1","author":"Watson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, X., Kang, H., Behnisch, M., Baildon, M., and Kr\u00fcger, T. (2020). To what extent can the Green Belts prevent urban sprawl?\u2014A comparative study of Frankfurt am Main, London and Seoul. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12020679"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Carmen, D.M., and Javier, M. (2018). Urban Visions, Springer."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2019.1664734","article-title":"The return of the city-region in the new urban agenda: Is this relevant in the Global South?","volume":"55","author":"Watson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1080\/13563475.2019.1665270","article-title":"Visionary cities or spaces of uncertainty? Satellite cities and new towns in emerging economies","volume":"24","author":"Bontje","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Plan. Stud."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Danish Ministry of the Environment, Nature Agency (2022, September 19). The Finger Plan: A Strategy for the Development of the Greater Copenhagen Area, Available online: https:\/\/danishbusinessauthority.dk\/sites\/default\/files\/fp-eng_31_13052015.pdf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1068\/b140193","article-title":"Six settlement patterns compared","volume":"14","author":"Rickaby","year":"1987","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murayama, Y. (2000). Japanese Urban System, Springer. The GeoJournal Library.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-2006-9"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/13563470120026505","article-title":"Subcentres and satellite cities: Tokyo\u2019s 20th century experience of planned polycentrism","volume":"6","author":"Sorensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Plan. Stud."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Corbane, C., Florczyk, A., Pesaresi, M., Politis, P., and Syrris, V. (2018). GHS Built-Up Grid, Derived from Landsat, Multitemporal (1975\u20131990\u20132000\u20132014), R2018A, European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Pesaresi, M., and Politis, P. (2022). GHS-BUILT-S R2022A-GHS Built-Up Surface Grid, Derived from Sentinel-2 Composite and Landsat, Multitemporal (1975\u20132030), European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Schiavina, M., Freire, S., and MacManus, K. (2022). GHS-POP R2022A-GHS Population Grid Multitemporal (1975\u20132030), European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, X., Hou, W., and Herold, H. (2018). Ex post impact assessment of master plans\u2014The case of Shenzhen in shaping a polycentric urban structure. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7070252"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2257.1980.tb00427.x","article-title":"Recent trends in urban spatial structure","volume":"11","author":"Greene","year":"1980","journal-title":"Growth Change"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1093\/jeg\/lbl025","article-title":"Measuring urban polycentricity: A European case study and its implications","volume":"7","author":"Riguelle","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Econ. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2017.01.005","article-title":"Measuring morphological polycentricity\u2014A comparative analysis of urban mass concentrations using remote sensing data","volume":"64","author":"Wurma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/0094-1190(87)90017-9","article-title":"The identification of urban employment subcenters","volume":"21","author":"McDonald","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1006\/juec.2000.2186","article-title":"Using quantile smoothing splines to identify employment subcenters in a multicentric urban area","volume":"49","author":"Craig","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1006\/juec.2001.2228","article-title":"Nonparametric employment subcenter identification","volume":"50","author":"McMillen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-0462(91)90032-I","article-title":"Subcenters in the Los Angeles region","volume":"21","author":"Giuliano","year":"1991","journal-title":"Reg. Sci. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1080\/00420989420080201","article-title":"Suburban employment centres: The case of Chicago","volume":"31","author":"McDonald","year":"1994","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1979.10481038","article-title":"Robust locally-weighted regression and smoothing scatterplots","volume":"74","author":"Cleveland","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1988.10478639","article-title":"Locally weighted regression: An approach to regression analysis by local fitting","volume":"83","author":"Cleveland","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1080\/0042098032000084613","article-title":"Cubic spline density functions and satellite city delimitation: The case of Barcelona","volume":"40","author":"Galindo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9488(2009)135:1(19)","article-title":"Estimating a Polycentric Urban Structure. Case Study: Urban Changes in the Stockholm Region 1991\u20132004","volume":"135","author":"Adolphson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Urban Plan. Dev."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"250","article-title":"On the development and the construction of school town along railway by private railway company in Tokyo before World War II","volume":"6","author":"Matsubara","year":"1986","journal-title":"Pap. Res. Meet. Civ. Eng. Hist. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Tokyo Daily Newspaper (2022, December 12). Greater Tokyo Determination of the Areas and Names of the 20 New Wards\u2014Documents Sent to the Ministry of the Interior. Volume 12. Available online: https:\/\/da.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp\/da\/np\/0100200815\/."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"601","article-title":"A Study on Green Belt Ring Plan of Tokyo Park System","volume":"38","author":"Sanada","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. City Plan. Inst. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (2022, December 17). White Paper on National Capital Region Development, Available online: https:\/\/www.mlit.go.jp\/kokudokeikaku\/international\/reports\/white_paper_capital_2006_eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"National Land Agency (2022, December 12). Metropolitan Area Development Plan Metropolitan Area Basic Plan (1st to 4th Round), The Changing Face of Tokyo: From Edo to Today, and into the Future. Available online: https:\/\/tokyo-urbandesignhistory.jp\/."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2010). Metropolitan Area Development Plans and Metropolitan Regional Plans: Genealogy and Prospects for Regional Planning in the Metropolitan Area. Community Or Reg. Dev., 551, 18\u201322."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"9","article-title":"Review of the Metropolitan Basic Plan","volume":"49","author":"Torina","year":"2000","journal-title":"Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Metropolitan Policy Research Institute, Inc (2000). Passage of the Metropolitan Area Basic Plan, Genealogy of Metropolitan Policy Series No. 6, Office of Management and Budget."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Ishida, Y. (2004). The Development of Modern and Contemporary Urban Planning in Japan: 1868\u20132003, Japan Local Government Centre."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (2022, December 19). The Greater Tokyo Metropolitan Area Regional Plan, Available online: https:\/\/www.ktr.mlit.go.jp\/ktr_content\/content\/000643635.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"199","article-title":"A Study on the green space policies on the fringe of Tokyo Wards Area in the 1950\u2018s and 60\u2019s","volume":"43","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. City Plan. Inst. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"18","article-title":"The construction of Shanghai\u2019s first batch of satellite cities","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Shanghai Stud. CCP Hist. Constr."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"16","article-title":"Greater Shanghai Plans (1946\u20131949): Planning visions and practice of a modern Chinese metropolis","volume":"10","author":"Hou","year":"2015","journal-title":"City Plan. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Shanghai Academy of Urban Planning and Design (2014). Greater Shanghai Plan, Tongji University Press."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"412","article-title":"The intensity and modes of urban land use growth in Shanghai","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"73","article-title":"A Study on the National Capital Region Development Planning System and the Metropolitan Development Zoning System","volume":"26","author":"Nakamura","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. City Plan. Inst. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Tokyo Urban Planning and Development Corporation (2019). A General History of Urban Development in Tokyo, Tokyo Urban Planning and Development Corporation."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Compilation Committee of the Shanghai Urban Planning Chronicle (1999). Shanghai Urban Planning Chronicle, Publishing House of Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2022, August 21). Shanghai Planning & Nature Resources Bureau, Available online: https:\/\/ghzyj.sh.gov.cn."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/6\/234\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:49:26Z","timestamp":1760125766000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/6\/234"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi12060234"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi12060234","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,6]]}}}