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and the imbalance of spatial structures make optimizing land use management a top priority in urban environmental management. Traditional land use classification systems that prioritize only natural features while disregarding human activity can result in redundancy and conflicts in urban planning. The Production\u2013Living\u2013Ecological Space (PLES) approach was developed as an integrated method for territorial spatial classification. However, most existing studies on PLES are conducted at provincial scales, largely overlooking fine-scale usage within cities. In addition, the existing concept of PLES has been vaguely defined, resulting in linear and simple identification methods that are not applicable to complex urban environments. To address these issues, this study proposes a method to identify urban PLES based on supervised classification using random forest models, which integrate empirical knowledge and multi-source heterogeneous information. The experiments conducted in Haikou reveal the regional aggregation of living and production spaces and the scarcity of ecological space in the city. Our study proposes a concrete concept of PLES and a method for identifying PLES that can be applied to multiple regions, providing an effective tool for the coordinated management of urban production, living, and ecological environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12070276","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,13]],"date-time":"2023-07-13T01:52:25Z","timestamp":1689213145000},"page":"276","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Identifying the Production\u2013Living\u2013Ecological Functional Structure of Haikou City by Integrating Empirical Knowledge with Multi-Source Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8983-9176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingbing","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geo-Informatics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"},{"name":"Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaoyong","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geo-Informatics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Polytechnic of Industry and Commerce, Guangzhou 510510, China"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geo-Informatics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5531-5841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuexi","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geo-Informatics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.08.055","article-title":"Projecting the Impacts of Urban Expansion on Simultaneous Losses of Ecosystem Services: A Case Study in Beijing, China","volume":"84","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. 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