{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:25:42Z","timestamp":1760149542938,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690934400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2020YFF0400400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFF0400400"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Achieving seamless integration between virtual objects and real scenes has always been an important issue in augmented reality (AR) research. To achieve this, it is necessary to provide virtual objects with real-time and accurate lighting conditions from a real scene. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to realize lighting consistency rendering for real-time AR systems in outdoor environments, aiming to enhance the user\u2019s sense of immersion. In this paper, we propose a lighting consistency technique for real-time AR systems in outdoor environments based on multi-source geographical information (MGI). Specifically, we introduce MGI into the study of lighting consistency and construct a comprehensive database to store and manage the acquired MGI data. Based on this, we proposed a sky radiance model driven using the MGI. Finally, we utilized the sky radiance model along with light sensor data to render the virtual objects in outdoor scenes. The experimental results show that the shadow angular error is reduced to 5.2\u00b0, and the system frame rate is increased to 94.26. This means that our method achieves a high level of realism in the fusion of virtual objects and real scenes while ensuring a high frame rate in the system. With this technology, users can conveniently and extensively realize the lighting consistency rendering of real-time AR systems in outdoor scenes using mobile devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12080324","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T10:57:33Z","timestamp":1690973853000},"page":"324","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Lighting Consistency Technique for Outdoor Augmented Reality Systems Based on Multi-Source Geo-Information"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kunpeng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Geomatics (NCG), Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Shuo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Geomatics (NCG), Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"given":"Weichao","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Geomatics (NCG), Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"given":"Yixin","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Geomatics (NCG), Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"given":"Yuang","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Geomatics (NCG), Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.1997.6.4.355","article-title":"A survey of augmented reality","volume":"6","author":"Azuma","year":"1997","journal-title":"Presence Teleoper. 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