{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T14:39:55Z","timestamp":1778596795794,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]],"date-time":"2023-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700524800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42271463"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271463"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["212300410014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["212300410014"]}]},{"name":"Henan Provincial Science Foundation for Outstanding Young Scholars","award":["42271463"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271463"]}]},{"name":"Henan Provincial Science Foundation for Outstanding Young Scholars","award":["212300410014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["212300410014"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Building outlines are important for emergency response, urban planning, and change analysis and can be quickly extracted from remote sensing images and raster maps using deep learning technology. However, such building outlines often have irregular boundaries, redundant points, inaccurate positions, and unclear turns arising from variations in the image quality, the complexity of the surrounding environment, and the extraction methods used, impeding their direct utility. Therefore, this study proposes a simplification and regularization algorithm for right-angled polygon building outlines with jagged edges. First, the minimum bounding rectangle of the building outlines is established and populated with a square grid based on the smallest visible length principle. Overlay analysis is then applied to the grid and original buildings to extract the turning points of the outlines. Finally, the building orientation is used as a reference axis to sort the turning points and reconstruct the simplified building outlines. Experimentally, the proposed simplification method enhances the morphological characteristics of building outlines, such as parallelism and orthogonality, while considering simplification principles, such as the preservation of the direction, position, area, and shape of the building. The proposed algorithm provides a new simplification and regularization method for right-angled polygon building outlines with jagged edges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12120469","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]],"date-time":"2023-11-21T12:12:13Z","timestamp":1700568733000},"page":"469","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Simplification and Regularization Algorithm for Right-Angled Polygon Building Outlines with Jagged Edges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Linghui","family":"Kong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Officers College, Chinese People\u2019s Armed Police Forces, Chengdu 610213, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haizhong","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuqing","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Niu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Di","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhekun","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12885","article-title":"A multi-scale partitioning and aggregation method for large volumes of buildings considering road networks association constraints","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2944","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2020.1856195","article-title":"A graph deep learning approach for urban building grouping","volume":"37","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810410001702021","article-title":"Automated building generalization based on urban morphology and gestalt theory","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comgeo.2020.101620","article-title":"Progressive simplification of polygonal curves","volume":"88","author":"Buchin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Geom."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02826387","article-title":"A progressive line simplification algorithm","volume":"5","author":"Qingsheng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geo Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1782","article-title":"Short-edge structure recognition and progressive simplification for buildings using \u201ccalculation regions\u201d","volume":"46","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"277","article-title":"Combined building simplification approach considering multi-feature constraints","volume":"25","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Z., Liu, Y., Cheng, L., and Ding, S. (2021). A progressive and combined building simplification approach with local structure classification and backtracking strategy. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10050302"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"102","article-title":"A Generalization method of street block based on dimension-reducing technique","volume":"36","author":"Qian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Meijers, M. (2016, January 14). Building simplification using offset curves obtained from the straight skeleton. Proceedings of the 19th ICA Workshop on Generalisation and Multiple Representation, Helsinki, Finland."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lokhat, I., and Touya, G. (2016). Enhancing building footprints with squaring operations. J. Spat. Inf. Sci., 33\u201360."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810500161179","article-title":"Optimization approaches for generalization and data abstraction","volume":"19","author":"Sester","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"931","article-title":"Generalization based on least squares adjustment","volume":"33","author":"Sester","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"93","article-title":"Simplification and aggregation of polygon object supported by Delaunay triangulation structure","volume":"6","author":"Ai","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Image Graph."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"584","article-title":"Structure Recognition and progressive simplification of the concaves of building polygon based on constrained D-tin","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"317","article-title":"Map generalization with a triangulated data structure","volume":"22","author":"Jones","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cartogr. Geogr. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"929","article-title":"Simplification of building polygon based on adjacent four-point method","volume":"42","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"703","article-title":"Simplification method of building polygon based on feature edges reconstruction","volume":"49","author":"Yin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2013.07.002","article-title":"A shape analysis and template matching of building features by the Fourier transform method","volume":"41","author":"Ai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, X., Ai, T., and Zhang, X. (2017). Template matching and simplification method for building features based on shape cognition. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6080250"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"874","article-title":"A simplification of residential feature by the shape cognition and template matching method","volume":"45","author":"Yan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2021.1873998","article-title":"A hybrid approach to building simplification with an evaluator from a backpropagation neural network","volume":"36","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00690805.1994.9713969","article-title":"Mathematical morphology in digital generalization of raster map data","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cartography"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"269","article-title":"The application of mathematical morphology and pattern recognition to building polygon simplification","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"162","article-title":"A simplification of urban buildings to preserve geometric properties using superpixel segmentation","volume":"79","author":"Shen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2013.823748","article-title":"Building simplification using backpropagation neural networks: A combination of cartographers\u2019 expertise and raster-based local perception","volume":"50","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"GISci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, Y., Thiemann, F., and Sester, M. (2019). Learning cartographic building generalization with deep convolutional neural networks. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8060258"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1179\/caj.1988.25.2.97","article-title":"Defining a minimum area rectangle circumscribing given information","volume":"25","author":"Doytsher","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cartogr. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-0190(72)90045-2","article-title":"An efficient algorithm for determining the con-vex hull of a finite planar set","volume":"1","author":"Graham","year":"1972","journal-title":"Inf. Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"He, Z., and Song, Y. (2015). General Map Compilation, Wuhan University Press."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Duch\u00eane, C., Bard, S., Barillot, X., Ruas, A., Trevisan, J., and Holzapfel, F. (2003, January 28\u201330). Quantitative and qualitative description of building orientation. Proceedings of the 7th ICA Workshop on Progress in Automated Map Generalisation, Fifth Workshop on Progress in Automated Map Generalization, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Zorzi, S., Shi, Y., Fraundorfer, F., and Zhu, X.X. (2022). RegGAN: An end-to-end network for building footprint generation with boundary regularization. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14081835"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, Y., Wu, F., Yin, J., Liu, C., Gong, X., and Wang, A. (2022). MSL-Net: An efficient network for building extraction from aerial imagery. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14163914"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Wang, Z., and Lee, D. (2000, January 10\u201312). Building simplification based on pattern recognition and shape analysis. Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Bayer, T. (2019). Automated Building Simplification Using a Recursive Approach Cartography in Central and Eastern Europe, Springer."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/12\/469\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:26:09Z","timestamp":1760131569000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/12\/12\/469"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi12120469"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi12120469","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]]}}}