{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,11]],"date-time":"2026-07-11T22:29:25Z","timestamp":1783808965695,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":145,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705449600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cadastral databases have been used for over 20 years, but most contain 2D data. The increasing presence of high-rise buildings with modern architecture complicates the process of determining property rights, restrictions, and responsibilities. It is, therefore, necessary to develop an efficient system for storing and managing multidimensional cadastral data. While there have been attempts to develop 3D cadastral database schemas, a comprehensive solution that meets all the requirements for effective data storage, manipulation, and retrieval has not yet been presented. This study aims to analyse the literature on 3D cadastral databases to identify approaches and technologies for storing and managing these data. Based on a systematic literature review integrated with a snowballing methodology, 108 documents were identified. During the analysis of the related documents, different parameters were extracted, including the conceptual data model, query type, and evaluation metrics, as well as the database management system (DBMS) used and technologies for visualisation, data preparation, data transformation, and the ETL (extract, transform, and load) process. The study emphasised the importance of adhering to database design principles and identified challenges associated with conceptual design, DBMS selection, logical design, and physical design. The study results provide insights for selecting the appropriate standards, technologies, and DBMSs for designing a 3D cadastral database system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi13010030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T08:57:32Z","timestamp":1705481852000},"page":"30","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["3D Cadastral Database Systems\u2014A Systematic Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0402-8229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javad","family":"Shahidinejad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Centre for Spatial Data Infrastructures and Land Administration, Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6650-5218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohsen","family":"Kalantari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Centre for Spatial Data Infrastructures and Land Administration, Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia"},{"name":"School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4256-3173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abbas","family":"Rajabifard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Centre for Spatial Data Infrastructures and Land Administration, Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoter, J.E., and van Oosterom, P. (2006). 3D Cadastre in An International Context: Legal, Organizational, and Technological Aspects, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420005677"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Lemmen, C., van Oosterom, P.J., Kara, A., Kalogianni, E., Shnaidman, A., Indrajit, A., and Alattas, A. (2019, January 1\u20133). The scope of LADM revision is shaping-up. Proceedings of the 8th Land Administration Domain Model Workshop, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.13098","article-title":"Modelling underground cadastral survey data in CityGML","volume":"27","author":"Saeidian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1080\/10095020.2021.1937336","article-title":"Integration of cadastral survey data into building information models","volume":"24","author":"Atazadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geo-Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVI-4-W5-2021-473-2021","article-title":"3D topological support in spatial databases: An overview","volume":"46","author":"Salleh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2020.105246","article-title":"Bi-temporal foundation for LADM v2: Fusing event and state based modelling of Land administration data 2D and 3D","volume":"102","author":"Thompson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Van Oosterom, P., Ploeger, H., Stoter, J., Thompson, R., and Lemmen, C. (2006, January 8\u201313). Aspects of a 4D Cadastre: A First Exploration. Proceedings of the FIG Congress, Shaping the Change, Munich, Germany. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/252548375_Aspects_of_a_4D_Cadastre_A_First_Exploration."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2010.02.003","article-title":"4D cadastres: First analysis of legal, organizational, and technical impact\u2014With a case study on utility networks","volume":"27","author":"Thompson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2010.520272","article-title":"Solutions for 4D cadastre\u2014with a case study on utility networks","volume":"25","author":"Thompson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Oosterom, P., and Stoter, J. (2010, January 14\u201317). 5D data modelling: Full integration of 2D\/3D space, time and scale dimensions. Proceedings of the Geographic Information Science: 6th International Conference, GIScience 2010, Zurich, Switzerland. Proceedings 6.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-15300-6_22"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Thompson, R., van Oosterom, P., and Karki, S. (2019, January 22\u201326). Towards an implementable data schema for 4D\/5D cadastre including bi-temporal support. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week 2019, Geospatial Information for a Smarter Life and Environmental Resilience, Hanoi, Vietnam."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"van Oosterom, P. (2018). Best Practices 3D Cadastres: Extended Version, International Federation of Surveyors (FIG)."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2023.107003","article-title":"Design of the new structure and capabilities of LADM edition II including 3D aspects","volume":"137","author":"Kara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Kara, A., Lemmen, C., Kalogianni, E., and van Oosterom, P. (2023, January 1\u201313). Requirements Based Design of the LADM Edition II. Proceedings of the 11th International FIG Land Administration Domain Model\/3D Land Administration Workshop, G\u00e4vle, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olfat, H., Atazadeh, B., Badiee, F., Chen, Y., Shojaei, D., and Rajabifard, A. (2021). A Proposal for Streamlining 3D Digital Cadastral Data Lifecycle. Land, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/land10060642"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Van Oosterom, P., Meijers, M., Verbree, E., Liu, H., and Tijssen, T. (2019, January 14\u201315). Towards a relational database Space Filling Curve (SFC) interface specification for managing nD-PointClouds. Proceedings of the M\u00fcnchner GI-Runde, M\u00fcnchen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Watt, A., and Eng, N. (2014). Database Design, BCcampus. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalogianni, E., van Oosterom, P., Dimopoulou, E., and Lemmen, C. (2020). 3D land administration: A review and a future vision in the context of the spatial development lifecycle. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9020107"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mamoulis, N. (2011). Spatial Data Management, Morgan & Claypool.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-01884-8"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1080\/00396265.2020.1838761","article-title":"Indoor space as the basis for modelling of buildings in a 3D Cadastre","volume":"53","author":"Tekavec","year":"2021","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zlatanova, S., and Stoter, J. (2006). The role of DBMS in the new generation GIS architecture. Front. Geogr. Inf. Technol., 155\u2013180.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-31305-2_8"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.104177","article-title":"Development of 3D spatial profiles to support the full lifecycle of 3D objects","volume":"98","author":"Kalogianni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-V-4-2021-139-2021","article-title":"Development Of 3d Cadastre In New South Wales Through E-Plan Lodgement","volume":"4","author":"Masri","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Coronel, C., and Morris, S. (2017). Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, Cengage Learning. [13th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Bar-Maor, A., and Smyth, K. (2022, January 11\u201315). ArcGIS & LADM (ISO 19152): From Conceptual to Implementation. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2022, Volunteering for the future\u2014Geospatial excellence for a better living, Warsaw, Poland."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahidinejad, J., Kalantari, M., and Rajabifard, A. (2023, January 13\u201314). Challenges and Steps Toward Implementing 3D Cadastral Database\u2014Physical Data Model of LADM. Proceedings of the 18th International 3D GeoInfo Conference, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-43699-4_49"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Alattas, A., Van Oosterom, P., and Zlatanova, S. (2018, January 11\u201313). Deriving the technical model for the indoor navigation prototype based on the integration of IndoorGML and LADM conceptual model. Proceedings of the 7th International FIG Workshop on the Land Administration Domain Model, Zagreb, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Alattas, A., van Oosterom, P., Zlatanova, S., Diakit\u00e9, A.A., and Yan, J. (2018, January 2\u20134). Developing a database for the LADM-IndoorGML model. Proceedings of the 6th International FIG Workshop on 3D Cadastres, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoter, J.E. (2004). 3D Cadastre, TU Delft.","DOI":"10.54419\/d0r0y6"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2021.1875062","article-title":"An IFC-based database schema for mapping BIM data into a 3D spatially enabled land administration database","volume":"14","author":"Barzegar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2021.105766","article-title":"A framework for spatial analysis in 3D urban land administration\u2013A case study for Victoria, Australia","volume":"111","author":"Barzegar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Zlatanova, S., Diakite, A.A., Aleksandrov, M., and Yan, J. (2020). Towards integrating heterogeneous data: A spatial DBMS solution from a CRC-LCL project in Australia. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9020063"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infsof.2008.09.009","article-title":"Systematic literature reviews in software engineering\u2013a systematic literature review","volume":"51","author":"Kitchenham","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inf. Softw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1051","article-title":"Guidelines for performing systematic literature reviews in software engineering version 2.3","volume":"45","author":"Kitchenham","year":"2007","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wohlin, C. (2014, January 13). Guidelines for snowballing in systematic literature studies and a replication in software engineering. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in software Engineering, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2601248.2601268"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Van Oosterom, P., and Stoter, J. (2012, January 23\u201327). Principles of 5D modeling, full integration of 3D space, time and scale. Proceedings of the Geospatial World Forum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghawana, T., Jane\u010dka, K., and Zlatanova, S. (2021). Development of 3D Spatial Database Enabled IT Framework for Land Agencies: Case Studies of Delhi, India and Prague, Czech Republic. Land, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/land10030248"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/S0198-9715(00)00052-1","article-title":"Spatial data management on a very large cadastral database","volume":"25","author":"Lemmen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/S0198-9715(02)00039-X","article-title":"Towards a 3D cadastre: Where do cadastral needs and technical possibilities meet?","volume":"27","author":"Stoter","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Jane\u010dka, K., and Karki, S. (2016, January 18\u201320). 3D data management\u2014Overview report. Proceedings of the 5th International FIG 3D Cadastre Workshop. Athens, Greece: International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2022.2027291","article-title":"Requirements of a data storage infrastructure for effective land administration systems: Case study of Victoria, Australia","volume":"68","author":"Shojaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Spat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Stoter, J., and Zlatanova, S. (2003, January 22\u201324). Visualisation and editing of 3D objects organised in a DBMS. Proceedings of the EuroSDR Com V. workshop on visualisation and rendering, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2019.1658877","article-title":"3D BIM-enabled spatial query for retrieving property boundaries: A case study in Victoria, Australia","volume":"34","author":"Barzegar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Thompson, R. (2013, January 24\u201325). Progressive development of a digital cadastral data base. Proceedings of the 5th FIG Land Administration Domain Model Workshop, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Rajabifard, A., Agunbiade, M., Kalantari, M., Yip, K.M., Atazadeh, B., Badiee, F., Isa, D.M.N.B., Adimin, M.K.B., Chan, K.L., and Aien, A. (2018, January 11\u201313). An LADM-based approach for developing and implementing a national 3D cadastre\u2013a case study of Malaysia. Proceedings of the 7th International FIG Workshop on the Land Administration Domain Model 2018, In conjunction with Sixth Croatian Congress on Cadastre (VI. HKK), Zagreb, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Germann, M., Kaufmann, J., Steudler, D., Lemmen, C., Van Oosterom, P., and De Zeeuw, K. (2017). Cadastre: Geo-Information Innovations in Land Administration, Springer."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Jenni, L., Guar\u00edn, L., Ziegler, S., and P\u00e9rez, B. (2017, January 20\u201324). Development and employment of a ladm implementing toolkit in colombia. Proceedings of the 2017 World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty: Responsible Land Governance\u2013Towards an Evidence-Based Approach, The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Jenni, L., Germann, M., Eisenhut, C., Guarin, A., and Bajo, V.M. (June, January 29). LADM Implementation in Colombia\u2013Process, Methodology and Tools developed and applied. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week, Helsinki, Finland."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2018.05.060","article-title":"An analysis of possibilities for the establishment of a multipurpose and multidimensional cadastre in Poland","volume":"77","author":"Mika","year":"2018","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Z., Hu, D., Yin, P., Wang, C., Chen, T., and Zhang, J. (2019). Calculation for multidimensional topological relations in 3D cadastre based on geometric Algebra. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8110469"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trystu\u0142a, A. (2017, January 27\u201328). Concept of a polish database of a multi-dimensional cadastral system with particular focus on geo-hazards. Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Engineering, ICEE, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Department of Construction Economics, Vilnius, Lithuania.","DOI":"10.3846\/enviro.2017.247"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1179\/1752270613Y.0000000067","article-title":"3D+ time Cadastre, possibility of implementation in Poland","volume":"46","author":"Siejka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"D\u00f6ner, F., Thompson, R., Stoter, J., Lemmen, C., Ploeger, H., and van OOSTEROM, P. (2008, January 14\u201319). 4D land administration solutions in the context of the spatial information infrastructure. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaljolie, R., Van Oosterom, P., and Dalyot, S. (2018). Spatial data structure and functionalities for 3d land management system implementation: Israel case study. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7010010"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcrsoy S\u00fcrmeneli, H., Koeva, M., and Alkan, M. (2022). The Application Domain Extension (ADE) 4D Cadastral Data Model and Its Application in Turkey. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11050634"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Da Purifica\u00e7\u00e3o, N.R.S., Henrique, V.B., Amorim, A., Carneiro, A., and de Souza, G.H.B. (2022). Reconstruction and storage of a low-cost three-dimensional model for a cadastre of historical and artistic heritage. Int. J. Build. Pathol. Adapt., ahead-of-print."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12096","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2022.2063410","article-title":"Design and implementation of a 4D cadastral legal model for Turkish land administration infrastructure based on LADM","volume":"37","author":"Alkan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B4-2021-423-2021","article-title":"Hybrid GIS-BIM approach for the Torino digital-twin: The implementation of a floor-level 3D city geodatabase","volume":"43","author":"Sammartano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.104322","article-title":"Cadastral data as a source for 3D indoor modelling","volume":"98","author":"Tekavec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.104418","article-title":"Design, development and usability testing of an LADM compliant 3D Cadastral prototype system","volume":"98","author":"Cemellini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tekavec, J., and Lisec, A. (2020). 3D geometry-based indoor network extraction for navigation applications using SFCGAL. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9070417"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.15292\/\/geodetski-vestnik.2017.03.412-426","article-title":"Using NoSQL databases in the 3D cadastre domain","volume":"61","author":"Bajat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geod. Vestn."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Athanasiou, A., Pispidikis, I., and Dimopoulou, E. (2017). 3D marine administration system based on LADM. Adv. 3d Geoinf., 385\u2013407.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25691-7_22"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2021.105307","article-title":"The LADM Valuation Information Model and its application to the Turkey case","volume":"104","author":"Kara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2014.07.008","article-title":"Merging BIM and GIS using ontologies application to urban facility management in ACTIVe3D","volume":"65","author":"Mignard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1179\/1752270613Y.0000000056","article-title":"Technical aspects for 3D hybrid cadastral model","volume":"45","author":"Ioannidis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-1-W1-527-2017","article-title":"Geospatial data processing for 3D city model generation, management and visualization","volume":"42","author":"Toschi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aditya, T., Laksono, D., Susanta, F.F., Istarno, I., Diyono, D., and Ariyanto, D. (2020). Visualization of 3D survey data for strata titles. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9050310"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2020.105252","article-title":"Design and development of an LADM-driven 3D Land administration system: Lessons learned in Malaysia","volume":"102","author":"Rajabifard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajji, R., Yaagoubi, R., Meliana, I., Laafou, I., and Gholabzouri, A.E. (2021). Development of an Integrated BIM-3D GIS Approach for 3D Cadastre in Morocco. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10050351"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B4-2022-471-2022","article-title":"A BIM\/IFC\u2013LADM solution aligned to the Greek legislation","volume":"43","author":"Andritsou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suwardhi, D., Trisyanti, S.W., Virtriana, R., Syamsu, A.A., Jannati, S., and Halim, R.S. (2022). Heritage Smart City Mapping, Planning and Land Administration (Hestya). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi11020107"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"229","article-title":"Strata Objects Based on Malaysian LADM Country Profile via Web 3D Visualization","volume":"46","author":"Hassan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tekavec, J., Lisec, A., and Rodrigues, E. (2020). Simulating Large-Scale 3D Cadastral Dataset Using Procedural Modelling. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9100598"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koeva, M., Nikoohemat, S., Oude Elberink, S., Morales, J., Lemmen, C., and Zevenbergen, J. (2019). Towards 3d indoor cadastre based on change detection from point clouds. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11171972"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barzegar, M., Rajabifard, A., Kalantari, M., and Atazadeh, B. (2021). Identification of Property Boundaries Using an IFC-Based Cadastral Database. Land, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/land10030300"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Rajabifard, A., Atazadeh, B., Yip, K.M., Kalantari, M., Rahimipour Anaraki, M., Olfat, H., Badiee, F., Shojaei, D., Lim, C.K., and Mohd Zain, M.A. (2019, January 1\u20133). Design and Implementation of a 3D National Digital Cadastral Database based on Land Administration Domain Model: Lessons Learned from a 3D Cadaster Project in Malaysia. Proceedings of the 8th International FIG Workshop on the Land Administration Domain Model, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Borrmann, A. (2010, January 3\u20134). From GIS to BIM and back again\u2013A Spatial Query Language for 3D building models and 3D city models. Proceedings of the 5th International 3D GeoInfo conference, BerlinV, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2017.03.014","article-title":"Multiple representation approach to achieve high-performance spatial queries of 3D BIM data using a relational database","volume":"81","author":"Solihin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLI-B2-625-2016","article-title":"An object-relational ifc storage model based on oracle database","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.104219","article-title":"LADM-IndoorGML for exploring user movements in evacuation exercise","volume":"98","author":"Alattas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Thompson, R., van Oosterom, P., Soon, K., and Priebbenow, R. (2016, January 2\u20136). A Conceptual Model supporting a range of 3D parcel representations through all stages: Data Capture, Transfer and Storage. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week 2016, Recovery from Disaster, Christchurcch, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Thompson, R., van Oosterom, P., Cemellini, B., and de Vries, M. (2018, January 11\u201313). Developing an LADM Compliant Dissemination and Visualization System for 3D Spatial Units. Proceedings of the 7th International FIG Workshop on the LADM, Zagreb, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2023.106537","article-title":"Modelling the legal spaces of 3D underground objects in 3D land administration systems","volume":"127","author":"Ramlakhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2017.10.002","article-title":"A simplified relational database schema for transformation of BIM data into a query-efficient and spatially enabled database","volume":"84","author":"Solihin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"260","article-title":"Registering the underground objects in the 3D cadastre: A case study of wine cellar located in the vineyard area Tokaj","volume":"23","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Montan. Slovaca"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVI-4-W5-2021-239-2021","article-title":"Producing and visualizating 3D building geodatabase as a part of 3D cadastre project","volume":"46","author":"Guntel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W20-55-2019","article-title":"A Geo-Database Solution for the Management and Analysis of Building Model With Multi-Source Data Fusion","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W16-417-2019","article-title":"The integration of 3D spatial and non\u2013spatial component for strata management","volume":"42","author":"Hanafi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Hassan, M.I., and Rahman, A.A. (2010, January 11\u201316). Malaysian Integrated 3D Cadastre. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2010, Facing the Challenges\u2014Building the Capacity, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W15-117-2019","article-title":"The LADM-based 3D underground utility mapping: Case study in Singapore","volume":"42","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVI-4-W3-2021-161-2022","article-title":"3D CityGML Building Models Development With Cross-Scale Query Database","volume":"46","author":"Karim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVI-4-W3-2021-337-2022","article-title":"Development of 3d Marine Cadastre Data Model Based on Land Administration Domain Model","volume":"46","author":"Zamzuri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Pantelios, K. (2022). Development of a QGIS plugin for the CityGML 3D City Database. [Master\u2019s Thesis, TU Delft]."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Halim, N.Z., Abdullah, N., Asari, M.S., and Ghazali, M.Z. (2022, January 11\u201315). The smartKADASTER Way\u2014An Approach Towards 3D Geovisualisation Beyond Cadastre Purposes in Malaysia. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2022, Volunteering for the future\u2014Geospatial excellence for a better living, Warsaw, Poland."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"\u015ei\u015fman, R.A.S., and Aydino\u011flu, A.\u00c7. (2022, January 26\u201327). Using 3D cadastre databases for sustainable real estate valuation in smart cities. Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Cities and Urban Landscapes (ICSULA), Konya, T\u00fcrkiye."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2023.106713","article-title":"3D crowdsourced parametric cadastral mapping: Pathways integrating BIM\/IFC, crowdsourced data and LADM","volume":"131","author":"Gkeli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Kara, A., I\u015f\u0131kda\u011f, \u00dc., \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f, V., van Oosterom, P., Lemmen, C., and Stubkj\u00e6r, E. (2018, January 12\u201313). A database implementation of LADM valuation information model in Turkish case study. Proceedings of the 7th International FIG Workshop on the Land Administration Domain Model 2018, In conjunction with Sixth Croatian Congress on Cadastre (VI. HKK), Zagreb, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, J., Jaw, S.W., Soon, K.H., Wieser, A., and Schrotter, G. (2019). Towards an underground utilities 3D data model for land administration. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201904.0223.v1"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Aringer, K., and Roschlaub, R. (2014). Innovations in 3D Geo-Information Sciences, Springer."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Mi, S., Olsson, P.-o., Paulsson, J., and Harrie, L. (2019). Utilizing BIM and GIS for Representation and Visualization of 3D Cadastre. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8110503"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2886018","article-title":"A multidimensional cadastral topological data model: Design and implementation","volume":"7","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ieee Access"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vi\u0161njevac, N., Mihajlovi\u0107, R., \u0160o\u0161ki\u0107, M., Cvijetinovi\u0107, \u017d., and Bajat, B. (2019). Prototype of the 3D cadastral system based on a NoSQL database and a Javascript visualization application. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8050227"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halim, N.Z.A., Lim, C.K., and Karim, H. (2021). Developing a 3D City Model Database Beyond Cadastral Purposes, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/767\/1\/012027"},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Zulkifli, N.A., Abdoel Rahman, A., and Siew, C.B. (2019, January 1\u20133). Database Design and Development of 3D Cadastral Registration based on LADM. Proceedings of the 8th International FIG Workshop on the Land Administration Domain Model, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2014.12.016","article-title":"A model for the creation and progressive improvement of a digital cadastral data base","volume":"49","author":"Thompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Mutiarasari, W.M., and Aditya, T. (2014, January 16\u201321). Development of Structure\u2013based Topology of 3D Spatial Databases for Storing and Querying 3D Cadastre Cases. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2014, Engaging the Challenges\u2014Enhancing the Relevance, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Zulkifli, N.A., Rahman, A.A., and Van Oosterom, P. (2013, January 24\u201325). Developing 2D and 3D cadastral registration system based on LADM: Illustrated with Malaysian cases. Proceedings of the 5th FIG Land Administration Domain Model Workshop, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Budisusanto, Y., Aditya, T., and Muryamto, R. (2013, January 24\u201325). LADM implementation prototype for 3D cadastre information system of multi-level apartment in Indonesia. Proceedings of the 5th Land Administration Domain Model Workshop, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Zulkifli, N.A., Rahman, A.A., Jamil, H., Hua, T.C., Choon, T.L., Seng, L.K., Lim, C.K., and van Oosterom, P. (2013, January 16\u201321). Development of a Prototype for the Assessment of the Malaysian LADM Country Profile. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2014, Engaging the Challenges\u2014Enhancing the Relevance, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Van Bennekom-Minnema, J. (2021, January 21\u201325). GeoDjango and LADM II: From Conceptual Model to Implementation. Proceedings of the FIG e-Working Week 2021\u2014Smart Surveyors for Land and Water Management\u2014Challenges in a New Reality, Online."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.104419","article-title":"A technical solution for 3D crowdsourced cadastral surveys","volume":"98","author":"Gkeli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"1","article-title":"Establishing Semantic 3D City Models by GRextADE: The Case of the Greece","volume":"6","author":"Liamis","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geovisualization Spat. Anal."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810500106042","article-title":"Technological aspects of a full 3D cadastral registration","volume":"19","author":"Stoter","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Stoter, J., and Van Oosterom, P. (2002, January 19\u201326). Incorporating 3D geo-objects into a 2D geo-DBMS. Proceedings of the FIG, ACSM\/ASPRS, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2021.105732","article-title":"Designing and implementing a LADM-based cadastral information system in Serbia, Montenegro and Republic of Srpska","volume":"109","author":"Govedarica","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W1-329-2016","article-title":"Geospatial Database for Strata Objects Based on Land Administration Domain Model (LADM)","volume":"42","author":"Nasorudin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Zulkifli, N.A., Abdul Rahman, A., and van Oosterom, P. (2014, January 9\u201311). 3D Strata Objects Registration for Malaysia within the LADM Framework. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on 3D Cadastres, Dubai, United Arab Emirates."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2021.105497","article-title":"Design and implementation of 3D strata objects registration based on LADM\u2013A case study in Malaysia","volume":"108","author":"Zulkifli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"van Bennekom-Minnema, J. (2008). The Land Administration Domain Model Survey Package and Model Driven Architecture, ITC."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalogianni, E., Dimopoulou, E., and van Oosterom, P. (2017). A 3D LADM prototype implementation in INTERLIS. Adv. 3d Geoinf., 137\u2013157.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25691-7_8"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalogianni, E., Dimopoulou, E., Quak, W., Germann, M., Jenni, L., and Van Oosterom, P. (2017). INTERLIS language for modelling legal 3D spaces and physical 3D objects by including formalized implementable constraints and meaningful code lists. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6100319"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2023.105267","article-title":"A semantic 3D city model for underground land administration: Development and implementation of an ADE for CityGML 3.0","volume":"140","author":"Saeidian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Soon, K.H., Thompson, R., and Khoo, V. (2014, January 9\u201311). Semantics-based fusion for CityGML and 3D LandXML. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on 3D Cadastres, Dubai, United Arab Emirates."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2015.12.003","article-title":"EXPRESS to OWL for construction industry: Towards a recommendable and usable ifcOWL ontology","volume":"63","author":"Pauwels","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"79","article-title":"NoSQL databases","volume":"20","author":"Strauch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lect. Notes Stuttg. Media Univ."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Han, J., Haihong, E., Le, G., and Du, J. (2011, January 26\u201328). Survey on NoSQL database. Proceedings of the 2011 6th International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Applications, IEEE, Port Elizabeth, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"(2012). Geographic Information\u2013Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) (Standard No. ISO 19152:2012)."},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"Lemmen, C., Alattas, A., Indrajit, A., Kalogianni, E., Kara, A., Oukes, P., and van Oosterom, P.J. (2021, January 20\u201325). The Foundation of Edition II of the Land Administration Domain Model. Proceedings of the FIG e-Working Week 2021: Challenges in a New Reality, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"Oldfield, J., Van Oosterom, P., Quak, W., Van Der Veen, J., and Beetz, J. (2016, January 18\u201320). Can data from BIMs be used as input for a 3D Cadastre. Proceedings of the 5th International FIG 3D Cadastre Workshop, Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arroyo Ohori, K., Diakit\u00e9, A., Krijnen, T., Ledoux, H., and Stoter, J. (2018). Processing BIM and GIS models in practice: Experiences and recommendations from a GeoBIM project in The Netherlands. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 7.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201806.0488.v1"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-IV-4-W8-35-2019","article-title":"Quality of BIM\u2013GIS conversion","volume":"4","author":"Biljecki","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W9-299-2018","article-title":"GIS and BIM integration at data level: A review","volume":"42","author":"Sani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"318","article-title":"BIM-CITYGML data integration for modern urban challenges","volume":"24","author":"Zadeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol. Constr."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Yamani, S., Hajji, R., and Billen, R. (2023). IFC-CityGML Data Integration for 3D Property Valuation. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12090351"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2010.04.016","article-title":"3D geo-database research: Retrospective and future directions","volume":"37","author":"Breunig","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"Bennett, R., Pickering, M., and Sargent, J. (2018, January 19\u201323). Innovations in land data governance: Unstructured data, NOSQL, Blockchain, and big data analytics unpacked. Proceedings of the Land and Poverty Conference, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"16","article-title":"Type of NOSQL databases and its comparison with relational databases","volume":"5","author":"Nayak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.02.016","article-title":"Transformations, transitions, or tall tales? A global review of the uptake and impact of NoSQL, blockchain, and big data analytics on the land administration sector","volume":"83","author":"Bennett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"IBM (2023, October 15). Configuring access to NoSQL data sources through NoSQL wrapper. Available online: https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/docs\/en\/db2-big-sql\/7.1?topic=cds-configuring-access-nosql-data-sources-through-nosql-wrapper."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"598","article-title":"Relational vs. nosql databases: A survey","volume":"3","author":"Mohamed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, W., Kumar, T., Zhang, C., Raj, K., Roy, A.M., and Luo, B. (2023). SQL and NoSQL Database Software Architecture Performance Analysis and Assessments\u2014A Systematic Literature Review. Big Data Cogn. Comput., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/bdcc7020097"},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Moniruzzaman, A., and Hossain, S.A. (2013). Nosql database: New era of databases for big data analytics-classification, characteristics and comparison. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_144","unstructured":"Connolly, T.M., and Begg, C.E. (2015). Database Systems: A Practical Approach to Design, Implementation, and Management, Pearson Education. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2022.2109159","article-title":"Developing an integrated approach to validate 3D ownership spaces in complex multistorey buildings","volume":"37","author":"Asghari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/13\/1\/30\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:48:59Z","timestamp":1760104139000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/13\/1\/30"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"references-count":145,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi13010030"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi13010030","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]}}}