{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:45:35Z","timestamp":1759970735491,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]],"date-time":"2025-01-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738195200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFB3907100","42471440","2024JJ8360"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFB3907100","42471440","2024JJ8360"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFB3907100","42471440","2024JJ8360"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFB3907100","42471440","2024JJ8360"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023YFB3907100","42471440","2024JJ8360"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFB3907100","42471440","2024JJ8360"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Combining blockchain technology with digital watermarking presents an efficient solution for safeguarding vector map files. However, the large data volume and stringent confidentiality requirements of vector maps pose significant challenges for direct registration on blockchain platforms. To overcome these limitations, this paper proposes a blockchain-based copyright protection model utilizing unique identifiers (BCPM-UI). The model employs a distance ratio-based quantization watermarking algorithm to embed watermark information into vector maps and then generates unique identifiers based on their topological and geometric parameters. These identifiers, rather than the vector maps themselves, are securely registered on the blockchain. To ensure reliable copyright verification, a bit error rate (BER)-based matching algorithm is introduced, enabling accurate comparison between the unique identifiers of suspected infringing data and those stored on the blockchain. Experimental results validate the model\u2019s effectiveness, demonstrating the high uniqueness and robustness of the identifiers generated. Additionally, the proposed approach reduces blockchain storage requirements for map data by a factor of 200, thereby meeting confidentiality standards while maintaining practical applicability in terms of copyright protection for vector maps.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi14020053","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]],"date-time":"2025-01-30T04:01:39Z","timestamp":1738209699000},"page":"53","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Blockchain Copyright Protection Model Based on Vector Map Unique Identification"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Heyan","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Geographical Environment Evolution, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nannan","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Research Center of Geographic Information Security and Application, Changsha 410004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Changqing","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Geographical Environment Evolution, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Na","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Geographical Environment Evolution, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Changhong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Research Center of Geographic Information Security and Application, Changsha 410004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2019.10.060","article-title":"Incremental route inference from low-sampling GPS data: An opportunistic approach to online map matching","volume":"512","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Q., Ren, N., Zhu, C., and Zhu, A. (2020). Blind digital watermarking algorithm against projection transformation for vector geographic data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9110692"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156727","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3017700","article-title":"A lossless watermarking algorithm based on line pairs for vector data","volume":"8","author":"Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2021.105009","article-title":"Congruence and geometric feature-based commutative encryption-watermarking method for vector maps","volume":"159","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"103503","article-title":"A robust and lossless commutative encryption and watermarking algorithm for vector geographic data","volume":"75","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Inf. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xi, X., Zhang, X., Liang, W., Xin, Q., and Zhang, P. (2019). Dual zero-watermarking scheme for two-dimensional vector map based on delaunay triangle mesh and singular value decomposition. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9040642"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, Y., Sun, J., and Zheng, J. (2023). A Self-Error-Correction-Based Reversible Watermarking Scheme for Vector Maps. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12030084"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2372","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2018.2819122","article-title":"A Low-Distortion Reversible Watermarking for 2D Engineering Graphics Based on Region Nesting","volume":"13","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, Z., Morizumi, T., Miyata, S., and Kinoshita, H. (2018, January 23\u201327). Design Scheme of Copyright Management System Based on Digital Watermarking and Blockchain. Proceedings of the IEEE 42nd Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC), Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMPSAC.2018.10258"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.07.029","article-title":"Blockchain for digital rights management","volume":"89","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, D., Ren, N., and Zhu, C. (2023). Integrity Authentication Based on Blockchain and Perceptual Hash for Remote-Sensing Imagery. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15194860"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, N., Zhao, Y., Zhu, C., Zhou, Q., and Xu, D. (2021). Copyright Protection Based on Zero Watermarking and Blockchain for Vector Maps. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10050294"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, C., Lu, H., Xiang, Y., Wu, J., and Wang, F. (2020). Geohashtile: Vector geographic data display method based on geohash. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9070418"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1587\/transinf.E96.D.1105","article-title":"Robust hashing of vector data using generalized curvatures of polyline","volume":"96","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-013-1661-z","article-title":"Polyline curvatures based robust vector data hashing","volume":"73","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2188","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2022.3157867","article-title":"Image Copyright Protection Based on Blockchain and Zero-Watermark","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.26599\/TST.2022.9010066","article-title":"A Copyright-Preserving and Fair Image Trading Scheme Based on Blockchain","volume":"28","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tsinghua Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"7","article-title":"Use of Blockchain technology for the exchange and secure transmission of medical images in the cloud: Systematic Review with Bibliometric Analysis","volume":"4","author":"Lizama","year":"2024","journal-title":"ASEAN J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2023.3329022","article-title":"High-Resolution Remote Sensing Image Zero-Watermarking Algorithm Based on Blockchain and SDAE","volume":"17","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1694","article-title":"Model and implementation of geographic data transaction certificate and copyright protection based on blockchain and digital watermarking","volume":"50","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Yan, F., and Tian, H. (2020). A Vector Map of Carbon Emission Based on Point-Line-Area Carbon Emission Classified Allocation Method. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su122310058"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1007\/s11036-018-0997-z","article-title":"A novel hybrid information security scheme for 2D vector map","volume":"23","author":"Da","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mob. Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"196","article-title":"A zero-watermarking algorithm of vector geographic data using singular value decomposition","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"143","article-title":"A zero-watermarking algorithm for vector geo-spatial data based on logistic chaotic mapping and DFT","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xi, X., Hua, Y., Chen, Y., and Zhu, Q. (2023). Zero-Watermarking for Vector Maps Combining Spatial and Frequency Domain Based on Constrained Delaunay Triangulation Network and Discrete Fourier Transform. Entropy, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/e25040682"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1007\/s12145-022-00886-5","article-title":"A zero-watermarking algorithm for vector geographic data based on feature invariants","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Inform."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2391","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2020.2986782","article-title":"Separable Robust Reversible Watermarking in Encrypted 2D Vector Graphics","volume":"30","author":"Peng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"421529","article-title":"A zero-watermarking scheme for vector map based on feature vertex distance ratio","volume":"2015","author":"Peng","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Electr. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"50","article-title":"A zero-watermark algorithm for vector data based on distribution center","volume":"26","author":"Lyu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33428","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2973458","article-title":"Topology-Preserving and Geometric Feature-Correction Watermarking of Vector Maps","volume":"8","author":"Xi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2023.120217","article-title":"A zero-watermarking scheme based on spatial topological relations for vector dataset","volume":"226","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1007\/s12145-019-00386-z","article-title":"Copyright authentication of digital vector maps based on spatial autocorrelation indices","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Inform."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, P., and Byun, Y. (2020). A blockchain-based secure image encryption scheme for the industrial Internet of Things. Entropy, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22020175"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2266","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2019.2895123","article-title":"Blockchain-enabled smart contracts: Architecture, applications, and future trends","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2020.2976697","article-title":"Blockchain-Enabled Accountability Mechanism Against Information Leakage in Vertical Industry Services","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.32604\/iasc.2021.016382","article-title":"Secure Image Authentication Using Watermarking and Blockchain","volume":"28","author":"Abrar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intell. Autom. Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B., Shi, J., Wang, W., and Zhao, P. (2020, January 10\u201313). A Blockchain-based System for Secure Image Protection Using Zero-watermark. Proceedings of the IEEE 17th International Conference on Mobile Ad Hoc and Sensor Systems, Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/MASS50613.2020.00018"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2022.102332","article-title":"Dual geometric perception for cross-domain road segmentation","volume":"76","author":"Zou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"164","article-title":"Describing spatial relations between area objects via combining topology with metrization","volume":"31","author":"Deng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810151072831","article-title":"A Voronoi-based 9-intersection model for spatial relations","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2018.07.002","article-title":"Evaluating the topological quality of watermarked vector maps","volume":"71","author":"Abubahia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s41651-023-00162-0","article-title":"A multilevel digital watermarking protocol for vector geographic data based on blockchain","volume":"7","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Geovisualization Spat. Anal."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2006.888837","article-title":"Near-optimal watermark estimation and its countermeasure: Antidisclosure watermark for multiple watermark embedding","volume":"17","author":"Lu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93760","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2994966","article-title":"NSCT-based robust and perceptual watermarking for DIBR 3D images","volume":"8","author":"Nam","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Q., Zhu, C., Ren, N., Chen, W., and Gong, W. (2021). Zero watermarking algorithm for vector geographic data based on the number of neighboring features. Symmetry, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym13020208"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.14257\/ijmue.2016.11.2.26","article-title":"RST invariant reversible watermarking for 2D vector map","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Multimed. Ubiquitous Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Zhang, X., and Zhang, Q. (2021). A Novel Invariant Based Commutative Encryption and Watermarking Algorithm for Vector Maps. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10110718"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Yang, C., and Ding, K. (2023). Multiple watermarking algorithms for vector geographic data based on multiple quantization index modulation. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app132212390"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"3475","article-title":"Storage feature-based watermarking algorithm with coordinate values preservation for vector line data","volume":"12","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"KSII Trans. Internet Inf. Syst. (TIIS)"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"1518","article-title":"Watermarking algorithm applying to small amount of vector geographical data","volume":"47","author":"Tong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/2\/53\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:38:42Z","timestamp":1759919922000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/2\/53"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi14020053"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi14020053","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]}}}