{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T16:32:28Z","timestamp":1773160348718,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743120000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","award":["2024M752474"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024M752474"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Population aging is a pressing global issue. As it progresses, older adults\u2019 demand for public transport will increase. Ensuring their equitable access is vital for social equity. Meanwhile, physiological changes and travel preferences in older adults create unique bus usage patterns, making them more susceptible to the built environment. To test this, we compared bus travel behavior between older adults and young people in Wuhan, China. Our results showed that older adults travel more often, with a longer morning peak and less pronounced evening peak. We developed the GWRBoost model, combining Geographic Weighted Regression (GWR) and eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), to explore the spatial heterogeneity and nonlinear impact of the built environment on bus travel for both groups. The study found significant differences in how the built environment affects bus ridership between older adults and young people. For older adults, proximity to the nearest bus stop is most critical, regardless of weekday or weekend. These variables also show spatial variations and nonlinear relations with bus ridership for both groups. These findings improve our understanding of older adults\u2019 travel and offer insights for optimizing their travel environment and promoting transportation equity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi14040148","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T13:36:49Z","timestamp":1743169009000},"page":"148","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Nonlinear Impact of Built Environment on Older Adults\u2019 Bus Use Behavior: A Hybrid Model Considering Spatial Heterogeneity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jiandong","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban Design, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingjing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban Design, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lele","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2019.04.002","article-title":"Analysis of Elderly People\u2019s Travel Behaviours during the Morning Peak Hours in the Context of the Free Bus Programme in Beijing, China","volume":"76","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1080\/01441647.2021.1872731","article-title":"Exploring the Impact of Public Transport Including Free and Subsidised on the Physical, Mental and Social Well-Being of Older Adults: A Literature Review","volume":"41","author":"Molloy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2021.103176","article-title":"Elderly Mobility during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Exploration in Kunming, China","volume":"96","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2021.103068","article-title":"Measuring Accessibility to Health Care Services for Older Bus Passengers: A Finer Spatial Resolution","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1080\/15568318.2018.1512691","article-title":"Assessing Bus Transit Service from the Perspective of Elderly Passengers in Harbin, China","volume":"13","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Transp."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2019.101868","article-title":"Factors Affecting the Travel Mode Choice of the Urban Elderly in Healthcare Activity: Comparison between Core Area and Suburban Area","volume":"52","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Z., Pun-Cheng, L.S.C., Liu, X., Lai, J., Tong, C., Zhang, A., Zhang, M., and Shi, W. (2020). Analysis of the Temporal Characteristics of the Elderly Traveling by Bus Using Smart Card Data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9120751"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2016.09.010","article-title":"Trip Making of Older Adults in Seoul: Differences in Effects of Personal and Household Characteristics by Age Group and Trip Purpose","volume":"57","author":"Hahn","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2019.04.001","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Travel Patterns of Elderly People\u2014A Comparative Study Based on Buses Usage in Qingdao, China","volume":"76","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2024.103453","article-title":"Uncovering Travel Communities among Older and Younger Adults Using Smart Card Data","volume":"173","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"903","article-title":"The Mobility and Accessibility Expectations of Seniors in an Aging Population","volume":"37","author":"Alsnih","year":"2003","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2024.103230","article-title":"Investigating Socio-Spatial Differentiation for Metro Travelers Using Smart Card Data: Older People vs. Others","volume":"165","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2018.09.006","article-title":"Travel Mobility and Social Participation among Older People in a Transit Metropolis: A Socio-Spatial-Temporal Perspective","volume":"118","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2019.05.028","article-title":"Discovering the Spatio-Temporal Impacts of Built Environment on Metro Ridership Using Smart Card Data","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Li, Y., Gruyer, D., Zargayouna, M., and Tu, M. (2024). Exploring the Spatial Relationship between Urban Built Environment and Green Travel: An Improved Semi-Parametric GWR Approach. Int. J. Transp. Sci. Technol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtst.2024.07.008"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2024.103323","article-title":"Nonlinear Impact of Built Environment on People with Disabilities\u2019 Metro Use Behavior","volume":"169","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2024.104540","article-title":"The Non-Linear Effects of Built Environment on Bus Ridership of Vulnerable People","volume":"139","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2024.103264","article-title":"Exploring Interactive and Nonlinear Effects of Key Factors on Intercity Travel Mode Choice Using XGBoost","volume":"166","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2017.07.005","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Travel Characteristics of the Elderly in an Ageing Society","volume":"9","author":"Szeto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2014.12.004","article-title":"Exploring Frequency of Public Transport Use among Older Adults: A Study in Adelaide, Australia","volume":"2","author":"Truong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2020.102938","article-title":"Understanding the Travel Behaviors and Activity Patterns of the Vulnerable Population Using Smart Card Data: An Activity Space-Based Approach","volume":"90","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-016-0651-x","article-title":"Mobility Characteristics of the Elderly: A Case for Seoul Metropolitan Area","volume":"20","author":"Choo","year":"2016","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2013.11.189","article-title":"Examining the Distribution of the Elderly and Accessibility to Essential Services","volume":"104","author":"Somenahalli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia\u2014Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2022.103368","article-title":"Demand, Mobility, and Constraints: Exploring Travel Behaviors and Mode Choices of Older Adults Using a Facility-Based Framework","volume":"102","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2010.03.018","article-title":"Estimating Social Travel Demand of Senior Citizens in the Netherlands","volume":"19","author":"Arentze","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1007\/s10618-012-0264-z","article-title":"Clustering Daily Patterns of Human Activities in the City","volume":"25","author":"Jiang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Data Min. Knowl. Disc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.013","article-title":"Distance Traveled in Three Canadian Cities: Spatial Analysis from the Perspective of Vulnerable Population Segments","volume":"19","author":"Morency","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1080\/01944361003766766","article-title":"Travel and the Built Environment: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"76","author":"Ewing","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Plan. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2019.05.013","article-title":"Understanding the Impact of Built Environment on Metro Ridership Using Open Source in Shanghai","volume":"93","author":"An","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2024.103397","article-title":"Associations between Neighborhood Compactness, Perceived Accessibility to Urban Amenities, and Mental Distress of Older Adults in a High-Density City","volume":"171","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2022.104931","article-title":"Time-Varying and Non-Linear Associations between Metro Ridership and the Built Environment","volume":"132","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102047","article-title":"Walk Accessibility to Metro Stations: An Analysis Based on Meso- or Micro-Scale Built Environment Factors","volume":"55","author":"Bivina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.12.031","article-title":"Lower-Body Function, Neighborhoods, and Walking in an Older Population","volume":"38","author":"Satariano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2023.100630","article-title":"The Effects of the Urban Built Environment on Public Transport Ridership: Similarities and Differences","volume":"33","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/15568310903145212","article-title":"Neighborhood Design and the Accessibility of the Elderly: An Empirical Analysis in Northern California","volume":"4","author":"Cao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Transp."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2023.103571","article-title":"An Investigation into the Impact of the Built Environment on the Travel Mobility Gap Using Mobile Phone Data","volume":"108","author":"Pan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2022.103380","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Exploration of the Non-Linear Impacts of Accessibility on Metro Ridership","volume":"102","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2015.08.002","article-title":"A Joint Model for Trip Purpose and Escorting Patterns of the Disabled","volume":"3","author":"Ermagun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.2307\/143141","article-title":"A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region","volume":"46","author":"Tobler","year":"1970","journal-title":"Econ. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2018.04.013","article-title":"Spatial Variations in Urban Public Ridership Derived from GPS Trajectories and Smart Card Data","volume":"69","author":"Tu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2018.02.009","article-title":"Applying Gradient Boosting Decision Trees to Examine Non-Linear Effects of the Built Environment on Driving Distance in Oslo","volume":"110","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2024.104101","article-title":"Exploring the Long-Term Threshold Effects of Density and Diversity on Metro Ridership","volume":"128","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2023.103889","article-title":"Travel Impedance, the Built Environment, and Customized-Bus Ridership: A Stop-to-Stop Level Analysis","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2024.100756","article-title":"How Do Built Environment Characteristics Influence Bus Use Patterns across Neighbourhood Types in Beijing? A Machine-Learning Analysis","volume":"35","author":"Tao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2022.106812","article-title":"Assessing the Impact of the Built Environment on Healthy Aging: A Gender-Oriented Hong Kong Study","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Impact Assess. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s11116-011-9341-1","article-title":"Walking to the Bus: Perceived versus Actual Walking Distance to Bus Stops for Older Adults","volume":"39","author":"Hess","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transportation"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2023.103707","article-title":"Estimation of the Aggregation Degree of Public Transport Use among Elderly People Based on Urban Built Environment","volume":"112","author":"Dou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2016.11.003","article-title":"The Influence of Built Environment on Travel Behavior of the Elderly in Urban China","volume":"52","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2013.03.008","article-title":"The Impacts of Household Structure on the Travel Behaviour of Seniors and Young Parents in China","volume":"30","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1007\/s11116-016-9680-z","article-title":"Elderly Travel Frequencies and Transport Mode Choices in Greater Rotterdam, the Netherlands","volume":"44","author":"Helbich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transportation"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Li, Y., Gruyer, D., and Tu, M. (2024). Non-Linear Relationship between Built Environment and Active Travel: A Hybrid Model Considering Spatial Heterogeneity. Int. J. Transp. Sci. Technol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijtst.2024.08.008"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2020.11.014","article-title":"Elaborating Non-Linear Associations and Synergies of Subway Access and Land Uses with Urban Vitality in Shenzhen","volume":"144","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2024.105789","article-title":"Exploring the Association between Multi-Mode Transport and the Built Environment: A Comparative Study of Metro, Bus, Taxi, and Shared Bike Use","volume":"114","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/4\/148\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:04:35Z","timestamp":1760029475000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/4\/148"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi14040148"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi14040148","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]]}}}