{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:22:37Z","timestamp":1760059357858,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749513600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42361053","422RC598","KYQD(ZR)22081"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42361053","422RC598","KYQD(ZR)22081"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42361053","422RC598","KYQD(ZR)22081"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42361053","422RC598","KYQD(ZR)22081"]}]},{"name":"Hainan University","award":["42361053","422RC598","KYQD(ZR)22081"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42361053","422RC598","KYQD(ZR)22081"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vegetation change profoundly influences ecosystem sustainability and human activities, with solar radiation serving as a primary driver. However, the effects of surface radiative forcing (SRF) and related factors on vegetation dynamics remain poorly understood. The Tibetan Plateau, a climate-sensitive region, offers a unique context to investigate these relationships. This study analyzes the association between vegetation greening and SRF on the Tibetan Plateau from 1982 to 2021. Using forecast albedo (FAL) and surface solar radiation downwards (SSRD), we calculated SRF and explored its correlation with the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and land cover data. The results indicate a gradual increase in growing-season NDVI, suggesting vegetation greening. Both FAL and SSRD exhibit decreasing trends, yet neither shows a statistically significant correlation with NDVI. The correlations between FAL\/SSRD and NDVI weaken with increasing altitude, declining by 0.035 \u00d7 10\u22121 per 500 m and 0.021 \u00d7 10\u22121 per 500 m, respectively. Among vegetation types, FAL correlates most strongly with shrubland NDVI and weakest with forest NDVI, while SSRD demonstrates the highest correlation with grassland NDVI and lowest with forest NDVI. The impact of SRF on NDVI changes is evident in 52.881% of the plateau, showing a positive correlation between SRF and \u0394NDVI, compared to 39.589% for SSRD and \u0394NDVI. This research enhances the understanding of vegetation responses to FAL, SSRD, and SRF, providing a scientific basis for ecological conservation and climate adaptation strategies, and also emphasizes radiation\u2013vegetation feedback, providing guidance for conservation strategies in other alpine ecosystems globally, such as the Andes and Alps, where elevation gradients and vegetation-type-specific responses to radiative forcing may similarly govern ecological outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi14060228","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T04:42:25Z","timestamp":1749530545000},"page":"228","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spatiotemporal Patterns of Greening and Their Correlation with Surface Radiative Forcing on the Tibetan Plateau from 1982 to 2021"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Junshan","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2724-7542","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Han","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1700304115","article-title":"Climate Change, Human Impacts, and Carbon Sequestration in China","volume":"115","author":"Fang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrini, F., Fini, A., Mori, J., and Gori, A. (2020). Role of Vegetation as a Mitigating Factor in the Urban Context. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12104247"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00299-021-02759-5","article-title":"Climate Change Regulated Abiotic Stress Mechanisms in Plants: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"41","author":"Chaudhry","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plant Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106642","article-title":"Analysis and Prediction of Vegetation Dynamic Changes in China: Past, Present and Future","volume":"117","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2023.127843","article-title":"Air Pollution Removal through Deposition on Urban Vegetation: The Importance of Vegetation Characteristics","volume":"81","author":"Gustafsson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2016.10.006","article-title":"The Solar Dimming\/Brightening Effect over the Mediterranean Basin in the Period 1979\u20132012","volume":"150\u2013151","author":"Kambezidis","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015101","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/5\/1\/015101","article-title":"Review of Climate and Cryospheric Change in the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"5","author":"Kang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-17-0057.1","article-title":"Recent Third Pole\u2019s Rapid Warming Accompanies Cryospheric Melt and Water Cycle Intensification and Interactions between Monsoon and Environment: Multidisciplinary Approach with Observations, Modeling, and Analysis","volume":"100","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"8941","article-title":"Evolution of ecological patterns and its driving factors on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau over the past 40 years","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Wu, J., Niu, B., He, Y., Zu, J., Li, M., and Zhang, X. (2020). Vegetation Expansion on the Tibetan Plateau and Its Relationship with Climate Change. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12244150"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"132","article-title":"Effects of vegetation degradation on atmospheric circulation over the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding areas","volume":"38","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"641","article-title":"Spatial and temporal changes of vegetation index and their response to temperature and precipitation in the Tibetan Plateau based on GIMMS NDVI","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Glaciol. Geocryol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7540","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030481","article-title":"Climate Change Trends and Impacts on Vegetation Greening Over the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"124","author":"Zhong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"3191","article-title":"Spatio-temporal change in vegetation patterns and its climatic drivers in the core region of Three Parallel Rivers in southeast Tibet","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"3208","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Variation of Vegetation Coverage over the Tibetan Plateau and Its Responses to Climatic Factors","volume":"38","author":"Zhuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"4770","article-title":"Response of vegetation dynamics to hydrothermal conditions on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the last 40 years","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1361","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variation and driving factors of growing season NDVI in the Tibetan Plateau, China","volume":"32","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"744","article-title":"The Dominated Environmental Factors of Vegetation Change on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau from 1982 to 2015","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1203","article-title":"Asian Water Tower Change and Its Impacts","volume":"34","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1220","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Pattern, Trend, and Influence of Glacier Change in Tibetan Plateau and Surroundings under Global Warming","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Losapio, G., Cerabolini, B.E.L., Maffioletti, C., Tampucci, D., Gobbi, M., and Caccianiga, M. (2021). The Consequences of Glacier Retreat Are Uneven Between Plant Species. Front. Ecol. Evol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2020.616562"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Plant\u2013Soil Interactions Underline the Development of Novel Ecosystems after Glacier Retreat","volume":"2024","author":"Charles","year":"2024","journal-title":"EGUsphere"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00035-024-00309-9","article-title":"Glacier Retreat Triggers Changes in Biodiversity and Plant\u2013Pollinator Interaction Diversity","volume":"134","author":"Tu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"Linking Glacier Retreat with Climate Change on the Tibetan Plateau through Satellite Remote Sensing","volume":"2024","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"EGUsphere"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-008-0259-2","article-title":"Grassland Degradation in the \u201cThree-River Headwaters\u201d Region, Qinghai Province","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2865","DOI":"10.1360\/TB-2019-0046","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Land Use and Cover Changes in the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"64","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"7903","article-title":"Responses of vegetation and soil of alpine meadows on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to short-term grazing prohibition","volume":"37","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.12.019","article-title":"Analysis of MODIS Albedo Changes over Steady Woody Covers in France during the Period of 2001\u20132013","volume":"191","author":"Planque","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2021.108479","article-title":"Assessing Albedo Dynamics and Its Environmental Controls of Grasslands over the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"307","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2275","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46577-1","article-title":"Accounting for Albedo Change to Identify Climate-Positive Tree Cover Restoration","volume":"15","author":"Hasler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.03.020","article-title":"Spatial, Temporal, and Spectral Variations in Albedo Due to Vegetation Changes in China\u2019s Grasslands","volume":"152","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"75","article-title":"Spatiotemporal changes of vegetation NDVI and its driving forces in China during 1982-2015","volume":"37","author":"Tu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"352","article-title":"Different Spatiotemporal Variations in Seasonal NDVI and Their Climatic Driving Forces of a Typical Grassland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau","volume":"43","author":"Hao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s13717-024-00493-w","article-title":"Changes in Albedo and Its Radiative Forcing of Grasslands in East Asia Drylands","volume":"13","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecol. Process."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2020.103225","article-title":"Contribution of Vegetation Change to the Surface Radiation Budget: A Satellite Perspective","volume":"192","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, X., Cui, Y., Li, N., Fu, Y., Liu, X., Run, Y., Li, M., Zhao, G., and Dong, J. (2020). Human Activities Enhance Radiation Forcing through Surface Albedo Associated with Vegetation in Beijing. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12050837"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2013.12.001","article-title":"Recent Climate Changes over the Tibetan Plateau and Their Impacts on Energy and Water Cycle: A Review","volume":"112","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1183188","article-title":"Climate Change Will Affect the Asian Water Towers","volume":"328","author":"Immerzeel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"689","article-title":"Imbalance of the Asian Water Tower characterized by glacier and snow melt","volume":"20","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clim. Chang. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duan, H., Xue, X., Wang, T., Kang, W., Liao, J., and Liu, S. (2021). Spatial and Temporal Differences in Alpine Meadow, Alpine Steppe and All Vegetation of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Their Responses to Climate Change. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040669"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"2955","article-title":"The differences of vegetation characteristics and environmental conditions among main vegetation types on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"725","article-title":"Quantitative Extraction and Analysis of Basic Morphological Types of Land Geomorphology in China: Quantitative Extraction and Analysis of Basic Morphological Types of Land Geomorphology in China","volume":"11","author":"Cheng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geo-Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3969","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD024871","article-title":"Will the Tibetan Plateau Warming Depend on Elevation in the Future?","volume":"121","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, W., Yao, J., He, Q., and Chen, J. (2021). Elevation-Dependent Trends in Precipitation Observed over and around the Tibetan Plateau from 1971 to 2017. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13202848"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"443","article-title":"Influence of urbanization on radiative forcing in Beijing","volume":"53","author":"Tang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Beijing Norm. Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1968.10480934","article-title":"Estimates of the Regression Coefficient Based on Kendall\u2019s Tau","volume":"63","author":"Sen","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2307\/1907187","article-title":"Nonparametric Tests Against Trend","volume":"13","author":"Mann","year":"1945","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Kendall, M.G. (1948). Rank Correlation Methods, Griffin."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(97)00125-X","article-title":"A Modified Mann-Kendall Trend Test for Autocorrelated Data","volume":"204","author":"Hamed","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2721","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160902755338","article-title":"Seasonal Trend Analysis of Image Time Series","volume":"30","author":"Sangermano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"164","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Variability and Climatic Drivers of Net Primary Productivity on Hainan Island during 2000\u20132018","volume":"39","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Inf."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JD034345","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JD034345","article-title":"Top-of-Atmosphere Radiation Budget and Cloud Radiative Effects Over the Tibetan Plateau and Adjacent Monsoon Regions from CMIP6 Simulations","volume":"126","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-19-861-2022","article-title":"Radiation, Soil Water Content, and Temperature Effects on Carbon Cycling in an Alpine Swamp Meadow of the Northeastern Qinghai\u2013Tibetan Plateau","volume":"19","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s40415-023-00901-z","article-title":"Reduction of PSII Photosynthetic Performance by Low Temperature Is the Reason for the Growing Inhibition of Kobresia Pygmaea Clarke","volume":"46","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Braz. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, J., Zhang, Z., Zhang, C., Zhang, J., and Ran, A. (2018). Ecophysiological Responses of Three Tree Species to a High-Altitude Environment in the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Forests, 9, (In Chinese).","DOI":"10.3390\/f9020048"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2024.123469","article-title":"Snowmelt Decreases Light Use Efficiency in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau between 2000 and 2017","volume":"373","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"2511","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Patterns of NPP and Its Response to Climate Change in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau from 2000 to 2015","volume":"35","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"153","article-title":"Change of NDVI during Growing Season and Its Relationship with Climate in North China and the Adjacent Areas from 1982 to 2014","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Nat. Univ. Pekin."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Li, Y., Gao, Y., Zou, C., Yan, S., and Gao, J. (2016). Human Impact on Vegetation Dynamics around Lhasa, Southern Tibetan Plateau, China. Sustainability, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/su8111146"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/6\/228\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:49:10Z","timestamp":1760032150000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/6\/228"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi14060228"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi14060228","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]]}}}