{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T23:25:42Z","timestamp":1776381942464,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation","award":["ZR2024MD056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2024MD056"]}]},{"name":"the National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2023YFD200140101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFD200140101"]}]},{"name":"the Scientific Innovation Project for Young Scientists in Shandong Provincial Universities","award":["2022KJ224"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022KJ224"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Saline\u2013alkali soils represent a significant reserve of arable land, playing a vital role in ensuring national food security. Given that saline\u2013alkali soil has low soil organic matter (SOM) and soil nutrient contents, and that soil quality degradation poses a threat to regional high-quality agricultural development and ecological balance, this study took coastal saline\u2013alkali land as a case study. It adopted the extreme gradient boosting (XGB) model optimized by the tree-structured Parzen estimator (TPE) algorithm, combined with in situ hyperspectral (ISH) and spaceborne hyperspectral (SBH) data, to predict and map soil organic matter and four soil nutrients: alkali nitrogen (AN), available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium (AK). From the research outputs, one can deduce that superior predictive efficacy is exhibited by the TPE-XGB construct, employing in situ hyperspectral datasets. Among these, available phosphorus (R2 = 0.67) exhibits the highest prediction accuracy, followed by organic matter (R2 = 0.65), alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (R2 = 0.56), and available potassium (R2 = 0.51). In addition, the spatial continuity mapping results based on spaceborne hyperspectral data show that SOM, AN, AP, and AK in soil nutrients in the study area are concentrated in the northern, eastern, southern, and riverbank and estuarine delta areas, respectively. The variability of soil nutrients from large to small is phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, and organic matter. The SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) analysis results reveal that the bands with the greatest contribution to the fitting of SOM, AN, AP, and AK are 612 nm, 571 nm, 1493 nm, and 1308 nm, respectively. Extending into realms of hierarchical partitioning (HP) and variation partitioning (VP), it is discerned that climatic factors (CLI) alongside vegetative aspects (VEG) wield dominant influence upon the spatial differentiation manifest in nutrients. Meanwhile, comparatively diminished are the contributions possessed by terrain (TER) and soil property (SOIL). In summary, this study effectively assessed the significant variation patterns of soil nutrient distribution in coastal saline\u2013alkali soils using the TPE-XGB model, providing scientific basis for the sustainable advancement of agricultural development in saline\u2013alkali coastal regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi14100403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T11:57:42Z","timestamp":1760529462000},"page":"403","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Evaluation of Spatial Variability of Soil Nutrients in Saline\u2013Alkali Farmland Using Automatic Machine Learning Model and Hyperspectral Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Meiyan","family":"Xiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qianlong","family":"Rao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaohang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoqian","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dexi","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Miao","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Arid and Semi-Arid Arable Land in Northern China\/Key Laboratory of Agricultural Remote Sensing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"National Center of Technology Innovationfor Comprehensive Utilization of Saline-Alkali Land, Dongying 257300, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yingqiang","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China"},{"name":"National Center of Technology Innovationfor Comprehensive Utilization of Saline-Alkali Land, Dongying 257300, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2021.106407","article-title":"A nutrient recommendation system for soil fertilization based on evolutionary computation","volume":"189","author":"Ahmed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. 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