{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T10:45:54Z","timestamp":1782729954158,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Flooding in the Kathmandu Valley has intensified in recent years due to rapid urbanization, unregulated land-use change, and insufficient drainage infrastructure. Existing flood hazard assessments are often based on low-resolution datasets and lack proper field validation. This study presents an integrated flood modeling framework that combines Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-derived Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), field-based flood measurements, and hydrological simulations to assess urban flood hazards in the Bagmati-Nakkhu confluence, Nepal. High-resolution UAV-derived DEM and field survey data, including flood marks and high-water levels, were used as the foundation for the analysis. Hydrological modeling was conducted using the Hydrologic Engineering Center\u2014Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) to estimate the peak discharges of the Nakkhu River (2000\u20132024), which were then used to derive design flows for return periods of 5 to 150 years using the Gumbel distribution. These flows were used as boundary condition inputs for the Hydrologic Engineering Center\u2014River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) to simulate flood depth and inundation extent under different scenarios. Flood extents for the 27 September 2024 event were derived from Sentinel-2 imagery and validated against surveyed flood marks. Additionally, land use\/land cover (LULC) mapping based on UAV data was used to support flood impact analysis. The results show that flood depths ranged from approximately 0.5 m to 2.8 m, with inundation areas increasing by 35\u201350% under extreme rainfall. Model validation demonstrated strong agreement with simulated results, with deviations generally within \u00b10.3\u20130.5 m. Scenario analysis further indicates that urban expansion significantly increases runoff and flood extent, particularly in low-lying areas near the river confluence. Socio-economic exposure analysis for the 27 September 2024 event indicates that approximately 2569 residents (56.4% of the study zone population) and 4.011 km (77.42%) of the local road network were exposed to inundation. Overall, the results demonstrate that integrating high-resolution UAV data, field observations, and hydrological modeling greatly improves the accuracy and reliability of flood hazard assessments in data-scarce urban environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi15070285","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T05:49:33Z","timestamp":1782712173000},"page":"285","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Integrating Field Measurements for Event-Based Flood Modeling: A Case Study of the Bagmati\u2013Nakkhu Confluence, Nepal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Rishav","family":"Khatiwada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1594-7143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shisir","family":"Kharel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5078-7193","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reshma","family":"Shrestha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pragyan","family":"Baral","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saurav","family":"Nepal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abhinav","family":"Chand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8353-4512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramesh","family":"Maskey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel 45200, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1010-2118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dev","family":"Paudyal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Engineering and Digital Technologies, University of Southern Queensland (UniSQ), Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2007.01446.x","article-title":"Global evidence that deforestation amplifies flood risk and severity in the developing world","volume":"13","author":"Bradshaw","year":"2007","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2009.08.019","article-title":"Land use, water management and future flood risk","volume":"26","author":"Wheater","year":"2009","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3126\/kjse.v8i1.69274","article-title":"Flood Modelling of Madi River Using HEC-RAS by Rain on Grid Approach","volume":"8","author":"Thapa","year":"2024","journal-title":"KEC J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42277","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-26815-2","article-title":"Increased Rainfall-Runoff Drives Flood Hazard Intensification in Central Himalayan River Systems","volume":"15","author":"Pink","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Salas, E.B. (2025, May 02). Flood Deaths per Year Worldwide 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/1293207\/global-number-of-deaths-due-to-flood\/."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"571","article-title":"Flood Scenario and Its Risk Management, Policy, Practices in Nepal","volume":"10","author":"Shreevastav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-025-07775-2","article-title":"Impact of Climate Change on Flood Properties in a Mountainous Catchment of Nepal Himalayas","volume":"122","author":"Kumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2018.11.022","article-title":"Review of flood disaster studies in Nepal: A remote sensing perspective","volume":"34","author":"Sharma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.2166\/wcc.2026.315","article-title":"Geospatial Analysis and Machine Learning for Flood Susceptibility Mapping","volume":"17","author":"Bhattarai","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Water Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Gauchan, K. (2026, April 17). Nepal\u2019s Flooding Challenges: Understanding the Struggle for Effective Mitigation. Nepal Economic Forum, 2 August 2023. Available online: https:\/\/nepaleconomicforum.org\/nepals-flooding-challenges-understanding-the-struggle-for-effective-mitigation\/."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2023.101562","article-title":"Assessing the Spatio-Temporal Impact of Landuse Landcover Change on Water Yield Dynamics of Rapidly Urbanizing Kathmandu Valley Watershed of Nepal","volume":"50","author":"Acharya","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10923","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-024-06650-w","article-title":"Characterizing Urban Flooding in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: The Influence of Urbanization and River Encroachment","volume":"120","author":"Danegulu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.01.1233","article-title":"Urban Flood Disaster Management","volume":"32","author":"Tingsanchali","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"World Weather Attribution (2026, April 16). Rapid Urbanisation and Climate Change Key Drivers of Dramatic Flood Impacts in Nepal. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldweatherattribution.org\/rapid-urbanisation-and-climate-change-key-drivers-of-dramatic-flood-impacts-in-nepal\/."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nhres.2025.04.001","article-title":"Unraveling the Causes and Impacts of Increasing Flood Disasters in the Kathmandu Valley: Lessons from the Unprecedented September 2024 Floods","volume":"5","author":"Lamichhane","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19409","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-025-07524-5","article-title":"Yesterday\u2019s Extremes, Today\u2019s New Normal: Flood Risk in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"121","author":"Talchabhadel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.111894","article-title":"Predicting Flood Events in Kathmandu Metropolitan City under Climate Change and Urbanisation","volume":"281","author":"KC","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3126\/jacem.v6i0.38361","article-title":"Land Use Land Cover (LULC) Change Projection in Kathmandu Valley Using the CLUE-S Model","volume":"6","author":"Lamichhane","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Coll. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3126\/gjn.v11i0.19546","article-title":"Policies and Institutions for Disaster Risk Management in Nepal: A Review","volume":"11","author":"Nepal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geogr. J. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"ICIMOD (2009). National Disaster Preparedness, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.13101\/ijece.5.1","article-title":"Rainfall-Induced Landslides in Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Dahal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Eros. Control Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"MoHA (2025, May 15). Disaster Study and Research Section, Ministry of Home Affairs, Available online: https:\/\/moha.gov.np\/en\/office-layout\/744."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"NDDRMA (2024). 2024 September Floods and Landslides."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.2166\/wpt.2023.048","article-title":"HEC-RAS 2D Modeling for Flood Inundation Mapping: A Case Study of the Krishna River Basin","volume":"18","author":"Vashist","year":"2023","journal-title":"Water Pract. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3126\/njg.v20i1.39474","article-title":"Flood Modeling Assessment: A Case of Bishnumati River","volume":"20","author":"Dangol","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geoinform. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdisas.2022.100260","article-title":"Flood Risk Modeling in Southern Bagmati Corridor, Nepal: A Study from Sarlahi and Rautahat, Nepal","volume":"16","author":"Shreevastav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Disaster Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Shrestha, A., Niraula, R.R., and Kafle, K.R. (2023, January 11\u201315). Multi Hazard Assessment and Vulnerability Mapping of Sindhupalchok District. Proceedings of the AGU Fall Meeting 2023, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2017.01.006","article-title":"Flood inundation modelling: A review of methods, recent advances and uncertainty analysis","volume":"90","author":"Teng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12937","DOI":"10.1111\/jfr3.12937","article-title":"Effectiveness of UAV-Based DTM and Satellite-Based DEMs for Local-Level Flood Modeling in Jamuna Floodplain","volume":"16","author":"Iqbal","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-021-02783-w","article-title":"Application of LiDAR UAV for High-Resolution Flood Modelling","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48497","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-024-34286-7","article-title":"Integrating Machine Learning and Geospatial Data Analysis for Comprehensive Flood Hazard Assessment","volume":"31","author":"Singha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3126\/njg.v19i1.50961","article-title":"Application of Hydrodynamic (HEC\u2013RAS) Model for Extreme Flood Analysis in Far-West Province: A Case Study of Chamelia River Basin, Darchula District, Nepal","volume":"19","author":"Adhikari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geoinform. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3126\/jngs.v66i01.57957","article-title":"Flood Hazard Modelling Using HEC-RAS in the Pathariya Khola, Far-Western Nepal","volume":"66","author":"Upadhyaya","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nepal Geol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"61","article-title":"1D-Flood Hazard Mapping and Analysis Using HEC-RAS Modelling, A Case Study of the Seti River, West Central Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Bohara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Latest Eng. Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2004.11.024","article-title":"Regional Scale Flood Modeling Using NEXRAD Rainfall, GIS, and HEC-HMS\/RAS: A Case Study for the San Antonio River Basin Summer 2002 Storm Event","volume":"75","author":"Knebl","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peker, \u0130.B., G\u00fclbaz, S., Demir, V., Orhan, O., and Beden, N. (2024). Integration of HEC-RAS and HEC-HMS with GIS in Flood Modeling and Flood Hazard Mapping. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16031226"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RG4001","DOI":"10.1029\/2008RG000274","article-title":"Progress in integration of remote sensing\u2013derived flood extent and stage data and hydraulic models","volume":"47","author":"Schumann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"C513","article-title":"Inundation Mapping and Flood Frequency Analysis Using HEC-RAS Hydraulic Model and EasyFit Software","volume":"32","author":"Minywach","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Manag. Model."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois, P., Salamon, P., Belay, H., Melesse, A.M., Tegegne, G., and Molla Kassaye, S. (2025). Flood Inundation Mapping Using the Google Earth Engine and HEC-RAS Under Land Use\/Land Cover and Climate Changes in the Gumara Watershed, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Remote Sens., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs17071283"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9447","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-36138-9","article-title":"GIS-Based Hydrodynamic Modeling for Urban Flood Mitigation in Fast-Growing Regions: A Case Study of Erbil, Kurdistan Region of Iraq","volume":"13","author":"Mustafa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1000179","article-title":"Flood Hazard Assessment and Mapping of Flood Inundation Area of the Awash River Basin in Ethiopia Using GIS and HEC-GeoRAS\/HEC-RAS Model","volume":"5","author":"Gebre","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Civ. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"2123","article-title":"Geospatial Approach to Model the Precipitation Induced Flash Flood in Sarpang","volume":"12","author":"Tenzin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.3126\/njg.v14i0.16969","article-title":"Flood Hazard Mapping and Vulnerability Analysis of Bishnumati River, Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Dangol","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geoinform. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watcyc.2025.08.004","article-title":"Evaluation of Climate Change Impact on Future Flood in the Bagmati River Basin, Nepal Using CMIP6 Climate Projections and HEC-RAS Modeling","volume":"7","author":"Malla","year":"2026","journal-title":"Water Cycle"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3126\/gjn.v19i1.92144","article-title":"Flood Hazard Mapping and Risk Evaluation in the Lower Karnali River Basin of Nepal","volume":"19","author":"Chhinal","year":"2026","journal-title":"Geogr. J. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.14445\/23488352\/IJCE-V8I5P105","article-title":"Flood Hazard Mapping and 1D Hydraulic Module for Damanganga River, Valsad District, Gujarat, India","volume":"8","author":"Lad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"41","article-title":"Comparative Study of Design Discharge Calculation Approaches, a Case Study of Padhu Khola, Kaski, Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Basnet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oodbodhan A J. TUTA Pashchimanchal Campus"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutanu, E., Mihu-Pintilie, A., Urzica, A., Paveluc, L.E., Stoleriu, C.C., and Grozavu, A. (2020). Using 1D HEC-RAS Modeling and LiDAR Data to Improve Flood Hazard Maps Accuracy: A Case Study from Jijia Floodplain (NE Romania). Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12061624"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"620","article-title":"Study on Flood Inundation Mapping for Ratuwa River Catchment Using HEC-RAS 2D","volume":"8","author":"Niraula","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IOE Grad. Conf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2387073","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2024.2387073","article-title":"City-Scale High-Resolution Flood Models and the Role of Topographic Data: A Case Study of Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"39","author":"Watson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.115492","article-title":"Application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle DEM in Flood Modeling and Comparison with Global DEMs: Case Study of Atrak River Basin, Iran","volume":"317","author":"Parizi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Iosub, M., and Huza, O. (2015). The Use of HEC-RAS Modelling in Flood Risk Analysis. Proceedings of the Annual Symposium on Geomorphology, Ia\u0219i, Romania, 2015, \u201cAlexandru Ioan Cuza\u201d University, Faculty of Geography. Available online: https:\/\/aerapa.conference.ubbcluj.ro\/2015\/PDF\/42_IOSUB_etal_315_322.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Arcement, G.J., and Schneider, V.R. (1989). Guide for Selecting Manning\u2019s Roughness Coefficients for Natural Channels and Flood Plains."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2353","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-013-0291-6","article-title":"Flood Hazards Mitigation Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS: Correspondence with Town Planning Scheme","volume":"27","author":"Patel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"26","article-title":"GIS-Based Flood Hazard Mapping Using HEC-RAS Model: A Case Study of Lower Mekong River, Cambodia","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geogr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"UN-SPIDER (2025, May 16). Step-by-Step: Flood Hazard Assessment. Available online: https:\/\/www.un-spider.org\/advisory-support\/recommended-practices\/recommended-practice-flood-hazard-assessment\/step-by-step."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1007\/s40030-018-0317-4","article-title":"Flood Management in Mahanadi Basin Using HEC-RAS and Gumbel\u2019s Extreme Value Distribution","volume":"99","author":"Parhi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.11648\/j.wros.20170604.11","article-title":"Flood Frequency Analysis Using Gumbel\u2019s Distribution Method: A Case Study of Lower Mahi Basin, India","volume":"6","author":"Bhagat","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"32","article-title":"Application of HEC-HMS Model on Event-Based Simulations in the Seethawaka Ganga River, Sri Lanka","volume":"2","author":"Gunathilake","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sch. J. Appl. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1007\/s40808-021-01177-6","article-title":"Modeling of Rainfall-Runoff Process Using HEC-HMS Model for an Urban Ungauged Watershed in Tunisia","volume":"8","author":"Mosbahi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Model. Earth Syst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"127","article-title":"Application of HEC-HMS Model for Runoff Simulation: A Case Study of Marshyangdi River Basin in Nepal","volume":"7","author":"Paudel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IOE Grad. Conf."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.9790\/3021-03931016","article-title":"Application of HEC-HMS for Flood Forecasting in Kabkian Basin and Delibajak Subbasin in Iran","volume":"3","author":"Asadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"IOSR J. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(70)90255-6","article-title":"River Flow Forecasting through Conceptual Models Part I: A Discussion of Principles","volume":"10","author":"Nash","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.13031\/2013.23153","article-title":"Model Evaluation Guidelines for Systematic Quantification of Accuracy in Watershed Simulations","volume":"50","author":"Moriasi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thakur, B., Parajuli, R., Kalra, A., Ahmad, S., and Gupta, R. (2017, January 21\u201325). Coupling HEC-RAS and HEC-HMS in Precipitation Runoff Modelling and Evaluating Flood Plain Inundation Map. Proceedings of the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2017, Sacramento, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784480625.022"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Annis, A., Nardi, F., Petroselli, A., Apollonio, C., Arcangeletti, E., Tauro, F., Belli, C., Bianconi, R., and Grimaldi, S. (2020). UAV-DEMs for Small-Scale Flood Hazard Mapping. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12061717"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clasing, R., Mu\u00f1oz, E., Arum\u00ed, J.L., and Parra, V. (2023). Remote Sensing with UAVs for Flood Modeling: A Validation with Actual Flood Records. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15213813"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106774","article-title":"How Does Increasing Impervious Surfaces Affect Urban Flooding in Response to Climate Variability?","volume":"118","author":"Sohn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palomba, G., Farasin, A., and Rossi, C. (2020). Sentinel-1 Flood Delineation with Supervised Machine Learning. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2020 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Waikoloa, HI, USA, 26 September\u20132 October 2020, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS39084.2020.9324472"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-22-2473-2022","article-title":"Effectiveness of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 for Flood Detection Assessment in Europe","volume":"22","author":"Tarpanelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albertini, C., Gioia, A., Iacobellis, V., Manfreda, S., and Petropoulos, G.P. (2024). Exploring the Use of Random Forest Classifier with Sentinel-2 Imagery in Flooded Area Mapping. Geographical Information Science: Case Studies in Earth and Environmental Monitoring, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-13605-4.00017-5"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghayour, L., Neshat, A., Paryani, S., Shahabi, H., Shirzadi, A., Chen, W., Al-Ansari, N., Geertsema, M., Amiri, M.P., and Gholamnia, M. (2021). Performance Evaluation of Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 OLI Data for Land Cover\/Use Classification Using a Comparison between Machine Learning Algorithms. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071349"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farhadi, H., Ebadi, H., Kiani, A., and Asgary, A. (2024). Near Real-Time Flood Monitoring Using Multi-Sensor Optical Imagery and Machine Learning by GEE: An Automatic Feature-Based Multi-Class Classification Approach. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16234454"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2020.107098","article-title":"Use of High-Water Marks and Effective Discharge Calculation to Optimize the Height of Bank Revetments in an Incised River Channel","volume":"356","author":"Galia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/15715121003714886","article-title":"Estimation of Design Discharge for an Ungauged Overflow-Receiving Watershed Using One-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Model","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. River Basin Manag."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"456","article-title":"Calibration of River Hydraulic Model Combined with GIS Analysis Using Ground-Based Observation Data","volume":"3","author":"Ghanbarpour","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Psomiadis, E., Diakakis, M., and Soulis, K.X. (2020). Combining SAR and Optical Earth Observation with Hydraulic Simulation for Flood Mapping and Impact Assessment. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12233980"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nhres.2023.07.001","article-title":"Evaluation of Post Extreme Floods in High Mountain Region: A Case Study of the Melamchi Flood 2021 at the Koshi River Basin in Nepal","volume":"3","author":"Adhikari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Wang, P., Lou, H., Wang, J., Zhao, C., and Gong, T. (2019). Estimating River Discharges in Ungauged Catchments Using the Slope-Area Method and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11112361"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-021-04302-3","article-title":"Exponent Determination in a Poorly Gauged Basin System in Nigeria Based on Flow Characteristics Investigation and Regionalization Method","volume":"3","author":"Fasipe","year":"2021","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.26491\/mhwm\/131092","article-title":"Flood Frequency Analysis for an Ungauged Himalayan River Basin Using Different Methods: A Case Study of Modi Khola, Parbat, Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Acharya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meteorol. Hydrol. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2023.110653","article-title":"Flood Susceptibility Mapping of Kathmandu Metropolitan City Using GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis","volume":"154","author":"Chaulagain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2021.105279","article-title":"An Integrated Flood Risk Assessment Approach Based on Coupled Hydrological-Hydraulic Modeling and Bottom-Up Hazard Vulnerability Analysis","volume":"148","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crenganis, L.M., Pricop, C.I., Diac, M., Olteanu-Raimond, A.-M., and Loghin, A.-M. (2025). Flood Risk Prediction and Management by Integrating GIS and HEC-RAS 2D Hydraulic Modelling: A Case Study of Ungheni, Iasi County, Romania. Water, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/w17202959"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01004","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202340001004","article-title":"Flood Modelling Using Integration of Multi-data Analysis and HEC-RAS Model in Mata Allo River, Sulawesi","volume":"400","author":"Uca","year":"2023","journal-title":"E3S Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2024.103609","article-title":"UAV Based Comprehensive Modelling Approach for Flood Hazard Assessment and Mitigation Planning","volume":"135","author":"Darji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s13201-025-02699-5","article-title":"Integrative Modeling for Enhanced Flood Risk Forecasting and Management in Semi-Arid Area of Iran","volume":"16","author":"Zarei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.28991\/CEJ-2026-012-01-013","article-title":"Flood Simulation Utilizing HEC-HMS and HEC-RAS","volume":"12","author":"Yousif","year":"2026","journal-title":"Civ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4345","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-26-4345-2022","article-title":"Deep Learning Methods for Flood Mapping: A Review of Existing Applications and Future Research Directions","volume":"26","author":"Bentivoglio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2020.09.007","article-title":"Deep Learning Neural Networks for Spatially Explicit Prediction of Flash Flood Probability","volume":"12","author":"Panahi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geosci. Front."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"2339","article-title":"Long Short-Term Memory Integrating Moving Average Method for Flood Inundation Depth Forecasting Based on Observed Data in Urban Area","volume":"116","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"103662","article-title":"Residual Wave Vision U-Net for Flood Mapping Using Dual Polarization Sentinel-1 SAR Imagery","volume":"127","author":"Jamali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-019-0155-x","article-title":"GCN250, new global gridded curve numbers for hydrologic modeling and design","volume":"6","author":"Jaafar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(78)90153-1","article-title":"Flood Routing by the Muskingum Method","volume":"36","author":"Gill","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4038\/engineer.v48i1.6843","article-title":"HEC-HMS Model for Runoff Simulation in a Tropical Catchment with Intra-Basin Diversions: Case Study of the Deduru Oya River Basin, Sri Lanka","volume":"48","author":"Sampath","year":"2015","journal-title":"Engineer"},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Chow, V.T. (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1111\/0033-0124.10042","article-title":"Generating surface models of population using dasymetric mapping","volume":"55","author":"Mennis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prof. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrestha, B.B., Aryal, D., Wang, L., Adhikari, T.R., Zhou, J., Li, X., Shrestha, M., Wang, Y., and Chen, D. (2020). A Model-Based Flood Hazard Mapping on the Southern Slope of Himalaya. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12020540"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1814","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09282-y","article-title":"New Estimates of Flood Exposure in Developing Countries Using High-Resolution Population Data","volume":"10","author":"Trigg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.2166\/h2oj.2025.024","article-title":"Exposure of public and private infrastructure to flood hazards in the Mohana-Khutiya River Basin, Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Adhikari","year":"2025","journal-title":"H2Open J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2023.100773","article-title":"Evaluation of Economic Loss of Urban Road Flooding: A Case of Kat mandu Metropolitan City","volume":"13","author":"Chauhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9429(1984)110:11(1588)","article-title":"Separation zone at open-channel junctions","volume":"110","author":"Best","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Hydraul. Eng."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12855","DOI":"10.1111\/jfr3.12855","article-title":"Quantitative Flood Hazard Assessment Methods: A Review","volume":"16","author":"Maranzoni","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2023.103997","article-title":"Rainfall Extremes under Future Climate Change with Implications for Urban Flood Risk in Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"97","author":"Shrestha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2009.12.010","article-title":"Coupling urban expansion models and hydrological models: How important are spatial patterns?","volume":"27","author":"Poelmans","year":"2010","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.5666","article-title":"Flood hazard and risk analysis in the southwest region of Bangladesh","volume":"19","author":"Tingsanchali","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/15\/7\/285\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T09:59:44Z","timestamp":1782727184000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/15\/7\/285"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]},"references-count":106,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi15070285"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi15070285","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]]}}}