{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:32:56Z","timestamp":1760243576870,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,27]],"date-time":"2013-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1380240000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There are many situations in which it is desirable to use a Local Positioning System (LPS), which constitutes a complete and independent unit, offers high accuracy and in addition is economical to realize. This paper describes the LPS LOSNUS (Localization of Sensor Nodes by Ultra Sound). LOSNUS is a complete and independent LPS where the same system can be used for localization and calibration. Primarily designed for locating numerous quasi-static devices, special care of system construction has taken on costly factors, especially in the construction of the infrastructure and of sensor nodes where locating can be realized with minimal additional hardware costs. LOSNUS enables a calibration process without the need of additional expensive tools and\/or laborious time in order to get accurate positions of transmitters. As a result, LOSNUS delivers high locating accuracy at medium update rates, and in case of sufficient number of transmitters can also tolerate single failures in the Time of Arrival (ToA) measurement, allowing arbitrary failure modes. In this article, the system is presented starting from design, realization and algorithms of localization and calibration. Finally, new measurement results are showing the high accuracy of localization based on a discussion of the applied uncertainty description.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi2040908","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,27]],"date-time":"2013-09-27T12:42:41Z","timestamp":1380285761000},"page":"908-934","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A Self-Contained and Self-Checking LPS with High Accuracy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Walter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gu\u00dfhausstrasse 25\/354, Vienna 1040, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Syafrudin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gu\u00dfhausstrasse 25\/354, Vienna 1040, Austria"},{"name":"Electronics Engineering Polytechnic Institute of Surabaya, Jl. Raya ITS-Kampus ITS Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Herbert","family":"Schweinzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gu\u00dfhausstrasse 25\/354, Vienna 1040, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.2528\/PIER10062801","article-title":"Indoor localisation with wireless sensor networks","volume":"109","author":"Mitilineos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res."},{"unstructured":"Schweinzer, H., and Kastner, W. (2003, January 7\u20138). Systems with Numerous Low-Cost Sensors\u2014New Tasks and Demands for Fieldbusses. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Fieldbus Systems and Their Applications (IFAC), Aveiro, Portugal.","key":"ref_2"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schweinzer, H., and Syafrudin, M. (2010, January 15\u201317). LOSNUS: An Ultrasonic System Enabling High Accuracy and Secure TDoA Locating of Numerous Devices. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland.","key":"ref_3","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2010.5645819"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harter, A., Hopper, A., Steggles, P., Ward, A., and Webster, P. (1999, January 15\u201319). The Anatomy of a Context-Aware Application. Proceedings of the 5th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom), Seattle, WA, USA.","key":"ref_4","DOI":"10.1145\/313451.313476"},{"unstructured":"Baunach, M., Kolla, R., and M\u00fchlberger, C. (2007). SNoW Bat: A High Precise WSN Based Location System, University of W\u00fcrzburg. Technical Report.","key":"ref_5"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazik, P., and Rowe, A. (2012, January 6\u20139). Indoor Pseudo-Ranging of Mobile Devices Using Ultrasonic Chirps. Proceedings of the 10th ACM Conference on Embedded Network Sensor Systems (SenSys), Toronto, ON, Canada.","key":"ref_6","DOI":"10.1145\/2426656.2426667"},{"unstructured":"Woodman, O., and Harle, R.K. (April, January 29). Concurrent Scheduling in the Active Bat Locating System. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PERCOM), Mannheim, Germany.","key":"ref_7"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Priyantha, N.B., Chakraborty, A., and Balakrishnan, H. (2000, January 6\u201311). The Cricket Location-Support System. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom), Boston, MA, USA.","key":"ref_8","DOI":"10.1145\/345910.345917"},{"unstructured":"Balakrishnan, H., Baliga, R., Curtis, D., Goraczko, M., Miu, A., Priyantha, N., Smith, A., Steele, K., Teller, S., and Wang, K. Lessons from Developing and Deploying the Cricket Indoor Location System. Available online:http:\/\/cricket.csail.mit.edu\/.","key":"ref_9"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casas, R., Marco, A., Guerrero, J., and Falco, J. (2006). Robust estimator for non-line-of-sight error mitigation in indoor localization. EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process.","key":"ref_10","DOI":"10.1155\/ASP\/2006\/43429"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz, F.D., Urena, J., Jimenez, J.A., Villadangos, J.M., Garcia, J.J., Hernandez, A., and Jimenez, A. (2008, January 12\u201315). Data Processing for the Calibration of an Acoustic Local Positioning System. Proceedings of IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference Proceedings (IMTC), Victoria, BC, Canada.","key":"ref_11","DOI":"10.1109\/IMTC.2008.4547392"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2007.33","article-title":"Hidden issues in deploying an indoor location system","volume":"6","author":"Casas","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nawaz, S., and Trigoni, N. (2010, January 8\u201312). In Robust Localization in Cluttered Environments with NLOS Propagation. Proceedings of IEEE 7th International Conference on Mobile Adhoc and Sensor Systems (MASS), San Francisco, CA, USA.","key":"ref_13","DOI":"10.1109\/MASS.2010.5663983"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(99)00042-1","article-title":"An automatic self-installation and calibration method for a 3D position sensing system using ultrasonics","volume":"28","author":"Mahajan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"unstructured":"Fukuju, Y., Minami, M., Morikawa, H., and Aoyama, T. (2003, January 15\u201316). In DOLPHIN: An Autonomous Indoor Positioning System in Ubiquitous Computing Environment. Proceedings of IEEE Workshop on Software Technologies for Future Embedded Systems (WSTFES), Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan.","key":"ref_15"},{"unstructured":"Nishitani, A., Nishida, Y., Hori, T., and Mizoguchi, H. (2004, January 10\u201313). Portable Ultrasonic 3D Tag System Based on a Quick Calibration Method, Systems. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Man and Cybernetics, The Hague, The Netherlands.","key":"ref_16"},{"unstructured":"Duff, P., and Muller, H. (2003, January 21\u201323). Autocalibration Algorithm for Ultrasonic Location Systems. Proceedings of 7th IEEE International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC), White Plains, NY, USA.","key":"ref_17"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Runge, A., Baunach, M., and Kolla, R. (2011, January 21\u201323). Precise Self-Calibration of Ultrasound Based Indoor Localization Systems. Proceedings of 2011 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal.","key":"ref_18","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2011.6071920"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spitzer, G., and Schweinzer, H. (2010, January 11\u201312). LOSNUS: Ultrasonic Indoor Locating for Numerous Static and Mobile Devices. Proceedings of 7th Workshop on Positioning Navigation and Communication (WPNC), Dresden, Germany.","key":"ref_19","DOI":"10.1109\/WPNC.2010.5649085"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1250\/ast.30.429","article-title":"Accuracy and resolution of ultrasonic distance measurement with high-time-resolution cross-correlation function obtained by single-bit signal processing","volume":"30","author":"Hirata","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acoust. Sci. Technol."},{"unstructured":"Elmer, H., and Schweinzer, H. (2003, January 22\u201324). Dependency of Correlative Ultrasonic Measurement Upon Transducer\u2019s Orientation. Proceedings of IEEE Sensors, Toronto, ON, Canada.","key":"ref_21"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1538-7305.1960.tb03942.x","article-title":"The theory and design of chirp radars","volume":"39","author":"Klauder","year":"1960","journal-title":"Bell. Syst. Tech. J."},{"unstructured":"Zhang, Y., and Abdulla, W. (2005). A Comparative Study of Time-Delay Estimation Techniques Using Microphone Arrays, The University of Auckland.","key":"ref_23"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"49","article-title":"Techniques for optimization in time delay estimation from cross correlation function","volume":"10","author":"Tamim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Technol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walter, C., and Schweinzer, H. (2012, January 13\u201315). An Accurate Compact Ultrasonic 3D Sensor Using Broadband Impulses Requiring no Initial Calibration. Proceedings of Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Graz, Austria.","key":"ref_25","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2012.6229255"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1109\/T-SU.1972.29683","article-title":"A device for point source simulation in a high frequency acoustical system","volume":"19","author":"Kettlewell","year":"1972","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Sonics Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1109\/78.740135","article-title":"Time difference of arrival dilution of precision and applications","volume":"47","author":"Bard","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"unstructured":"Syafrudin, M., Walter, C., and Schweinzer, H. (2013, January 28\u201331). Location Estimation Algorithms for the High Accuracy LPS LOSNUS. Proceedings of International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Montbeliard, France. in press.","key":"ref_28"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stephan, P., Heck, I., Kraus, P., and Frey, G. (2009, January 3\u20135). Evaluation of Indoor Positioning Technologies under Industrial Application Conditions in the SmartFactoryKL Based on EN ISO 9283. Proceedings of 13th IFAC Symposium on Information Control Problems in Manufacturing, Moscow, Russia.","key":"ref_29","DOI":"10.3182\/20090603-3-RU-2001.0294"},{"unstructured":"Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, Evaluation of Measurement Data\u2014Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement. Available online:http:\/\/www.bipm.org\/utils\/common\/documents\/jcgm\/JCGM_100_2008_E.pdf.","key":"ref_30"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahafza, B., Elsherbeni, A., and Mahafza, C. (2004). MATLAB Simulations for Radar Systems Design, Chapman and Hall\/CRC Press.","key":"ref_31","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203502556"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/2\/4\/908\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:49:35Z","timestamp":1760219375000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/2\/4\/908"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,27]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi2040908"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi2040908","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,27]]}}}