{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T11:04:48Z","timestamp":1767092688143,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,19]],"date-time":"2016-01-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1453161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3D building segmentation is an important research issue in the remote sensing community with relevant applications to urban modeling, cloud-to-cloud and cloud-to-model registration, 3D cartography, virtual reality, cultural heritage documentation, among others. In this paper, we propose automatic, parametric and robust approaches to segment fa\u00e7ades from 3D point clouds. Processing is carried out using elevation images and 3D decomposition, and the final result can be reprojected onto the 3D point cloud for visualization or evaluation purposes. Our methods are based on geometrical and geodesic constraints. Parameters are related to urban and architectural constraints. Thus, they can be set up to manage fa\u00e7ades of any height, length and elongation. We propose two methods based on fa\u00e7ade marker extraction and a third method without markers based on the maximal elongation image. This work is developed in the framework of TerraMobilita project. The performance of our methods is proved in our experiments on TerraMobilita databases using 2D and 3D ground truth annotations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5010006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,19]],"date-time":"2016-01-19T12:55:32Z","timestamp":1453208132000},"page":"6","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Segmentation of Fa\u00e7ades from Urban 3D Point Clouds Using Geometrical and Morphological Attribute-Based Operators"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"Serna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MINES ParisTech, CMM\u2014Centre de Morphologie Math\u00e9matique, 35 rue St Honor\u00e9, Fontainebleau 77305, France"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Marcotegui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MINES ParisTech, CMM\u2014Centre de Morphologie Math\u00e9matique, 35 rue St Honor\u00e9, Fontainebleau 77305, France"}]},{"given":"Jorge","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MINES ParisTech, CMM\u2014Centre de Morphologie Math\u00e9matique, 35 rue St Honor\u00e9, Fontainebleau 77305, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Vosselman, G., and Maas, H.G. (2010). Airborne and Terrestrial Laser Scanning, Whittles Publishing."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, J., and Marcotegui, B. (2009, January 20\u201322). Point cloud segmentation towards urban ground modeling. Proceedings of the 5th GRSS\/ISPRS Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event (URBAN 2009), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/URS.2009.5137562"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.07.001","article-title":"Urban accessibility diagnosis from mobile laser scanning data","volume":"84","author":"Serna","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"CapDigital TerraMobilita: 3D Mapping of Roads and Urban Public Space, Accessibility and Soft Mobility. Available online: http:\/\/cmm.ensmp.fr\/TerraMobilita\/."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"3","article-title":"An integrated on-board laser range sensing system for on-the-way city and road modelling","volume":"34","author":"Goulette","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Boulaassal, H., Grussenmeyer, P., and Tarsha-kurdi, F. (2007, January 12\u201314). Automatic segmentation of building facades using terrestrial laser data. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop on \"Laser Scanning 2007 and SilviLaser 2007\", Espoo, Finland."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2006.877064","article-title":"Range image segmentation using surface selection criterion","volume":"15","author":"Gheissari","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Hoover, A. University of South Florida (USF) Range Image Database. Available online: http:\/\/marathon. csee.usf.edu\/range\/DataBase.html."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1109\/34.329010","article-title":"The robust sequential estimator: A general approach and its application to surface organization in range data","volume":"16","author":"Boyer","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Werghi, N., Fisher, R., Robertson, C., and Ashbrook, A. (1998, January 2\u20136). Modelling objects having quadric surfaces incorporating geometric constraints. Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Computer Vision ECCV\u201998, Freiburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0054741"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1109\/34.910883","article-title":"Robust segmentation of primitives from range data in the presence of geometric degeneracy","volume":"23","author":"Marshall","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chaperon, T., and Goulette, F. (2001, January 21\u201323). Extracting cylinders in full 3D data using a random sampling method and the Gaussian image. Proceedings of the 2001 Vision Modeling and Visualization Conference, Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.12.001","article-title":"An adaptive approach for the segmentation and extraction of planar and linear\/cylindrical features from laser scanning data","volume":"93","author":"Lari","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Demantke, J., Mallet, C., David, N., and Vallet, B. (2011, January 29\u201331). Dimensionality based scale selection in 3D LiDAR point clouds. Proceedings of 2011 ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning, Calgary, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Hammoudi, K. (2011). Contributions to the 3D City Modeling. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Est, Champs-sur-Marne]."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sevcik, C., and Studnicka, N. Documentation of Complex Facades and City Modelling through the Combination of Laserscanning and Photogrammetry. Available online: http:\/\/www.riegl.com\/uploads\/tx_pxpriegldownloads\/Documentation_of_complex_facades_and_city_ modelling_through_the_combination_of_Laserscanning_and_photogrammetry.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.2011.00635.x","article-title":"Tree modelling from mobile laser scanning data-sets","volume":"26","author":"Rutzinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"301","article-title":"RANSAC algorithm and elements of graph theory for automatic plane detection in 3D point clouds","volume":"24","author":"Poreba","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Photogramm. Cartogr. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serna, A., and Marcotegui, B. (2013, January 27\u201329). Attribute controlled reconstruction and adaptive mathematical morphology. Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Mathematical Morphology (ISMM 2013), Uppsala, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-38294-9_18"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinmann, M., Jutzi, B., and Mallet, C. (2013, January 11\u201313). Feature relevance assessment for the semantic interpretation of 3D point cloud data. Proceedings of 2013 ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning, Antalya, Turkey.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-5-W2-313-2013"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinmann, M., Jutzi, B., and Mallet, C. (2014, January 5\u20137). Semantic 3D scene interpretation: A framework combining optimal neighborhood size selection with relevant features. Proceedings of 2014 ISPRS Technical Commission III Symposium, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-3-181-2014"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Shao, H., Svodoba, T., and Gool, L.V. (2003). ZuBuD\u2014Zurich Building Database for Image Based Recognition, ETH Zurich."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, J., and Marcotegui, B. (2009, January 7\u201310). Morphological segmentation of building fa\u00e7ade images. Proceedings of the 16th IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, Cairo, Egypt.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2009.5413756"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teboul, O., Simon, L., Koutsourakis, P., and Paragios, N. (2010, January 13\u201318). Segmentation of building facades using procedural shape priors. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2010.5540068"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Serna, A., Hern\u00e1ndez, J., and Marcotegui, B. (2012, January 27\u201331). Adaptive parameter tuning for morphological segmentation of building facade images. Proceedings of the 20th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO2012), Bucharest, Romania."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.02.018","article-title":"Discovering repetitive patterns in facade images using a RANSAC style algorithm","volume":"92","author":"Teeravech","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Serra, J. (1982). Image Analysis and Mathematical Morphology, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soille, P. (2003). Morphological Image Analysis: Principles and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-05088-0"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, J., and Marcotegui, B. (, January 1\u20132). Filtering of artifacts and pavement segmentation from mobile LiDAR data. Proceedings of 2009 ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-3203(84)90057-8","article-title":"Geodesic methods in quantitative image analysis","volume":"17","author":"Maisonneuve","year":"1984","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2818.1981.tb01197.x","article-title":"On the use of the geodesic metric in image analysis","volume":"121","author":"Beucher","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Microsc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/s10851-012-0374-7","article-title":"Efficient geodesic attribute thinnings based on the barycentric diameter","volume":"46","author":"Morard","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Math. Imaging Vis."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Golovinskiy, A., Kim, V.G., and Funkhouser, T. (October, January 27). Shape-based recognition of 3D point clouds in urban environments. Proceedings of the 12th IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Kyoto, Japan."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munoz, D., Vandapel, N.D., and Hebert, M. (2009, January 12\u201317). Onboard contextual classification of 3-D point clouds with learned high-order Markov Random Fields. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Kobe, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2009.5152856"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.09.008","article-title":"Relevance assessment of full-waveform LiDAR data for urban area classification","volume":"66","author":"Mallet","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.08.006","article-title":"Recognizing basic structures from mobile laser scanning data for road inventory studies","volume":"66","author":"Pu","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"191","article-title":"From connected operators to levelings","volume":"Volume 12","author":"Meyer","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mathematical Morphology and Its Applications to Image and Signal Processing"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2014.03.014","article-title":"Segmentation of elongated objects using attribute profiles and area stability: Application to melanocyte segmentation in engineered skin","volume":"47","author":"Serna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1006\/cviu.1999.0777","article-title":"Connected filtering and segmentation using component trees","volume":"75","author":"Jones","year":"1999","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1109\/36.905239","article-title":"A new approach for the morphological segmentation of high-resolution satellite imagery","volume":"39","author":"Pesaresi","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2006.07.020","article-title":"Numerical residues","volume":"25","author":"Beucher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morard, V., Decenci\u00e8re, E., and Dokl\u00e1dal, P. (2011, January 16\u201318). Region growing structuring elements and new operators based on their shape. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Signal and Image Processing (ICSIPA), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.2316\/P.2011.759-018"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Serna, A. (2014). Semantic Analysis of 3D Point Clouds from Urban Environments: Ground, Facades, Urban Objects and Accessibility. [Ph.D. Thesis, MINES ParisTech]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Wikipedia City Blocks. Available online: http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=City_block &oldid=617153038."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Matheron, G. (1975). Random Sets and Integral Geometry, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serra, J., and Soille, P. (1994). Mathematical Morphology and Its Applications to Image Processing, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-1040-2"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1515\/crll.1908.133.97","article-title":"Nouvelles applications des param\u00e8tres continus \u00e0 la th\u00e9orie des formes quadratiques","volume":"133","author":"Voronoi","year":"1908","journal-title":"J. Die Reine Angew. Math."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Marie de Paris Open Data Paris. Available online: http:\/\/opendata.paris.fr\/."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Vosselman, G., and Zhou, L. (, January 1\u20132). Detection of curbstones in airborne laser scanning data. Proceedings of 2009 ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"293","article-title":"Mapping curbstones in airborne and mobile laser scanning data","volume":"18","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Br\u00e9dif, M., Vallet, B., Serna, A., Marcotegui, B., and Paparoditis, N. TerraMobilita\/iQmulus Urban Point Cloud Classification Benchmark. Available online: http:\/\/data.ign.fr\/benchmarks\/ UrbanAnalysis\/."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"69","article-title":"Stereopolis II: A multi-purpose and multi-sensor 3D mobile mapping system for street visualisation and 3D metrology","volume":"200","author":"Paparoditis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Fr. Photogramm. T\u00e9l\u00e9d\u00e9tec."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Serna, A., and Marcotegui, B. Results of TerraMobilita\/iQmulus Urban Point Cloud Classification Benchmark. Available online: https:\/\/partage.mines-telecom.fr\/public.php?service=files &t=294aed38d48c8ddd03a528069f1b2e51."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2015.03.004","article-title":"TerraMobilita\/iQmulus Urban Point Cloud Analysis Benchmark","volume":"49","author":"Vallet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Project Management Platform of the CMM Morph-M: Image Processing Software Specialized in Mathematical Morphology. Available online: http:\/\/morphm.ensmp.fr."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Faessel, M., and Bilodeau, M. SMIL: Simple Morphological Image Library. S\u00e9minaire Performance et G\u00e9n\u00e9ricit\u00e9, LRDE. Available online: http:\/\/cmm.ensmp.fr\/ faessel\/smil."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/1\/6\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:17:56Z","timestamp":1760210276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/1\/6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,19]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi5010006"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi5010006","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,19]]}}}