{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T10:08:32Z","timestamp":1768817312781,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,4]],"date-time":"2016-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1454544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urban surface energy fluxes are closely associated with land-cover types (LCTs) and critical biophysical compositions. This study aims to assess the contribution of LCTs, vegetation fractional coverage (VFC) and percentage of impervious surface area (ISA%) to urban surface energy fluxes using remote sensing. An advanced urban surface energy flux algorithm was used to combine satellite imagery and meteorological station data to investigate the thermal environments in the city of Suzhou, China. The land cover abundances retrieved by multiple endmember spectral unmixing analysis (MESMA) were used to retrieve the per-pixel sensible heat flux (H) and latent heat flux (LE). The resultant heat fluxes were assessed using evaporation pan data collected from meteorological stations and ratios of the heat fluxes to the net radiation (Rn). Furthermore, spatial patterns of urban heat energy were investigated using an integrated analysis among land surface temperature (LST), heat fluxes, LCTs, VFC and ISA%. The high values of H and LST were found over the urbanized areas, which also had low values of LE. Conversely, the vegetated area was characterized with high LEs, as well as low LSTs and Hs. Moreover, a statistically-significant correlation (p &lt; 0.05; R2 = 0.88) was observed between LE and VFC at the zonal level, and a statistically-significant correlation (p &lt; 0.05; R2 = 0.90) was exhibited between H and ISA%. It is concluded that VFC, ISA% and LCTs are promising for delineating urban heat fluxes. Overall, this study indicates that remote sensing techniques can be used to quantify urban thermal environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5020011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,4]],"date-time":"2016-02-04T10:26:22Z","timestamp":1454581582000},"page":"11","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["An Assessment of Urban Surface Energy Fluxes Using a Sub-Pixel Remote Sensing Analysis: A Case Study in Suzhou, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6102-0860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle &amp; Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jun-yong","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xue","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiao-hong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xue-ke","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Mansfield, CT 06269, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4131","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110114998","article-title":"Monitoring the composition of urban environments based on the vegetation-impervious surface-soil (VIS) model by subpixel analysis techniques","volume":"23","author":"Phinn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.09.008","article-title":"Relationship between satellite-derived land surface temperatures, arctic vegetation types, and NDVI","volume":"112","author":"Raynolds","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.11.005","article-title":"Estimation of land surface temperature-vegetation abundance relationship for urban heat island studies","volume":"89","author":"Weng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2011.08.004","article-title":"Remotely sensing the cooling effects of city scale efforts to reduce urban heat island","volume":"49","author":"Mackey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR3372.1","article-title":"Urban canopy modeling of the new york city metropolitan area: A comparison and validation of single- and multilayer parameterizations","volume":"135","author":"Holt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1","article-title":"The energetic basis of the urban heat island","volume":"108","author":"Oke","year":"1982","journal-title":"Quart. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"256","article-title":"Bi-temporal characterization of land surface temperature in relation to impervious surface area, NDVI and NDBI, using a sub-pixel image analysis","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3919","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(99)00134-X","article-title":"The energy balance of central mexico city during the dry season","volume":"33","author":"Oke","year":"1999","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.10.015","article-title":"Diurnal and weekly variation of anthropogenic heat emissions in a tropical city, singapore","volume":"46","author":"Quah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1074","article-title":"Energy and radiation balance of a central european city","volume":"24","author":"Christen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2012.11.025","article-title":"Application of continuous surface temperature monitoring technique for investigation of nocturnal sensible heat release characteristics by building fabrics in Hong Kong","volume":"58","author":"Sham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2010.04.001","article-title":"Approaches to study urban heat island\u2014Abilities and limitations","volume":"45","author":"Mirzaei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.04.026","article-title":"Analysis of urban heat-island effect using aster and ETM+ data: Separation of anthropogenic heat discharge and natural heat radiation from sensible heat flux","volume":"99","author":"Kato","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"263","article-title":"Comparison of surface heat balance in three cities in taiwan using Terra ASTER and formosat-2 RSI data","volume":"18","author":"Kato","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.10.007","article-title":"Estimation of the relationship between remotely sensed anthropogenic heat discharge and building energy use","volume":"67","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.04.009","article-title":"Modelling of urban sensible heat flux at multiple spatial scales: A demonstration using airborne hyperspectral imagery of Shanghai and a temperature-emissivity separation approach","volume":"112","author":"Xu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.02.011","article-title":"Estimation of storage heat flux in an urban area using aster data","volume":"110","author":"Kato","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6026","DOI":"10.3390\/s8096026","article-title":"Surface heat balance analysis of tainan city on March 6, 2001 using ASTER and formosat-2 data","volume":"8","author":"Kato","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.003","article-title":"Comparison of impervious surface area and normalized difference vegetation index as indicators of surface urban heat island effects in Landsat imagery","volume":"106","author":"Yuan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.11.1275","article-title":"Urban surface biophysical descriptors and land surface temperature variations","volume":"72","author":"Weng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/10106040108542210","article-title":"Revealing the anatomy of cities through spectral mixture analysis of multispectral satellite imagery: A case study of the Greater Cairo Region, Egypt","volume":"16","author":"Rashed","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"68","article-title":"A sub-pixel analysis of urbanization effect on land surface temperature and its interplay with impervious surface and vegetation coverage in Indianapolis, United States","volume":"10","author":"Weng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169508954549","article-title":"Exploring a V-I-S (vegetation-impervious surface-soil) model for urban ecosystem analysis through remote sensing: Comparative anatomy for cities","volume":"16","author":"Ridd","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.01.025","article-title":"A multi-scale approach to urban thermal analysis","volume":"104","author":"Gluch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00082-8","article-title":"Effects of urbanization on the aquatic fauna of the Line Creek watershed, Atlanta\u2014A satellite perspective","volume":"86","author":"Gillies","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2013.04.025","article-title":"Modeling urban heat islands in heterogeneous land surface and its correlation with impervious surface area by using night-time aster satellite data in highly urbanizing city, Delhi-India","volume":"52","author":"Mallick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(98)00037-6","article-title":"Mapping chaparral in the Santa Monica Mountains using multiple endmember spectral mixture models","volume":"65","author":"Roberts","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"137","article-title":"An endmember optimization approach for linear spectral unmixing of fine-scale urban imagery","volume":"27","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2263425","article-title":"Examining urban heat island relations to land use and air pollution: Multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis for thermal remote sensing","volume":"6","author":"Feizizadeh","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-010-0263-1","article-title":"Modeling the impact of urbanization on the local and regional climate in Yangtze River Delta, China","volume":"102","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-010-0040-1","article-title":"Urban heat island and boundary layer structures under hot weather synoptic conditions: A case study of Suzhou City, China","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Cooley, T., Anderson, G., Felde, G., Hoke, M., Ratkowski, A., Chetwynd, J., Gardner, J., Adler-Golden, S., Matthew, M., and Berk, A. (2002, January 24\u201328). Flaash, a Modtran4-based atmospheric correction algorithm, its application and validation. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez-Mu\u00f1oz, J.C., and Sobrino, J.A. (2003). A generalized single-channel method for retrieving land surface temperature from remote sensing data. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. (1984\u20132012), 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD003480"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00171-1","article-title":"A comparative study of land surface emissivity retrieval from NOAA data","volume":"75","author":"Sobrino","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.02.003","article-title":"Land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat TM 5","volume":"90","author":"Sobrino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.04.012","article-title":"Improved land surface emissivities over agricultural areas using ASTER NDVI","volume":"103","author":"Sobrino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1977)016<0011:TEBOAU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Energy balance of an urban canyon","volume":"16","author":"Nunez","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00205-4","article-title":"Narrowband to broadband conversions of land surface albedo I: Algorithms","volume":"76","author":"Liang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Brutsaert, W. (1982). Evaporation into the Atmosphere: Theory, History and Applications (Environmental Fluid Mechanics), Springer."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration\u2014Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements\u2014FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56, Food and Agriculture Organization. FAO Technical Papers."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2409111","article-title":"Modeling of anthropogenic heat flux using HJ-1B Chinese small satellite image: A study of heterogeneous urbanized areas in Hong Kong","volume":"12","author":"Wong","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1001525622213","article-title":"Aerodynamic roughness of urban areas derived from wind observations","volume":"89","author":"Grimmond","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.84.1063","article-title":"Scalar roughness parameters for a suburban area","volume":"84","author":"Moriwaki","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1994)033<1110:SHFRST>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Sensible heat flux-radiometric surface temperature relationship for eight semiarid areas","volume":"33","author":"Stewart","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4046","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2281776","article-title":"Assessing intra-urban surface energy fluxes using remotely sensed aster imagery and routine meteorological data: A case study in Indianapolis, USA","volume":"7","author":"Weng","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1980)019<0606:TEBMOA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The energy balance microclimate of a suburban lawn","volume":"19","author":"Suckling","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1976.0035","article-title":"The interpretation of the variations in leaf water potential and stomatal conductance found in canopies in the field","volume":"273","author":"Jarvis","year":"1976","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishida, K., Nemani, R.R., Running, S.W., and Glassy, J.M. (2003). An operational remote sensing algorithm of land surface evaporation. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. (1984\u20132012), 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002062"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(94)02178-M","article-title":"Maximum conductances for evaporation from global vegetation types","volume":"73","author":"Kelliher","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Boardman, J.W., Kruse, F.A., and Green, R.O. (1995, January 23\u201326). Mapping target signatures via partial unmixing of AVIRIS data. Proceedings of the 5th Annual JPL Airborne Earth Science Workshop, Pasadena, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, D.A., Gardner, M.E., Church, R., Ustin, S.L., and Green, R.O. (1997). Optimum strategies for mapping vegetation using multiple-endmember spectral mixture models. Proc. SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.278930"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00135-4","article-title":"Endmember selection for multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis using endmember average RMSE","volume":"87","author":"Dennison","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Roberts, D., Halligan, K., and Dennison, P. (2007). Viper Tools User Manual (Version 1.5), University of California."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4804","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70404804","article-title":"Analysis of the urban heat island effect in Shijiazhuang, China using satellite and airborne data","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K., Su, H., and Li, X. (2015). Estimating high-resolution urban surface temperature using a hyperspectral thermal mixing (HTM) approach. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens.","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2459375"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2009.12.007","article-title":"Combining an ecological model with remote sensing and GIS techniques to monitor soil water content of croplands with a monsoon climate","volume":"97","author":"Ju","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-119-2011","article-title":"A coupled remote sensing and the surface energy balance with Topography Algorithm (SEBTA) to estimate actual evapotranspiration over heterogeneous terrain","volume":"15","author":"Gao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Liu, Y. (2012). Characteristics of Surface Heat Flux on Urban Island Effects Using Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing in China\u2019s Typical City. [Ph.D. Thesis, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences]."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Unger, J., Savi\u0107, S., and G\u00e1l, T. (2011). Modelling of the annual mean urban heat island pattern for planning of representative urban climate station network. Adv. Meteorol., 2011.","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/398613"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2011.03.009","article-title":"Does spatial configuration matter? Understanding the effects of land cover pattern on land surface temperature in urban landscapes","volume":"102","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"67","article-title":"Assessing the effects of land use spatial structure on urban heat islands using HJ-1B remote sensing imagery in Wuhan, China","volume":"32","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grimmond, C., and Oke, T.R. (1995). Comparison of heat fluxes from summertime observations in the suburbs of four north American cities. 34, 873\u2013889.","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1995)034<0873:COHFFS>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3733","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2011.636766","article-title":"Evaluation of dynamic linkages between evapotranspiration and land-use\/land-cover changes with Landsat TM and ETM+ data","volume":"33","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.11.016","article-title":"Remote sensing image-based analysis of the relationship between urban heat island and land use\/cover changes","volume":"104","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2009.04.005","article-title":"The cooling efficiency of urban landscape strategies in a hot dry climate","volume":"92","author":"Pearlmutter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2011.11.020","article-title":"Daily and seasonal climatic conditions of green urban open spaces in the mediterranean climate and their impact on human comfort","volume":"51","author":"Cohen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3354\/cr006045","article-title":"Influence of tree cover on summer-time surface energy balance fluxes, San Gabriel Valley, Los Angeles","volume":"6","author":"Grimmond","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00117976","article-title":"Advectively-assisted evapotranspiration from irrigated urban vegetation","volume":"17","author":"Oke","year":"1979","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuang, W., Dou, Y., Zhang, C., Chi, W., Liu, A., Liu, Y., Zhang, R., and Liu, J. (2015). Quantifying the heat flux regulation of metropolitan land use\/land cover components by coupling remote sensing modeling with in situ measurement. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD022249"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2012.718465","article-title":"Spatial-temporal patterns of urban anthropogenic heat discharge in Fuzhou, China, observed from sensible heat flux using Landsat TM\/ETM+ data","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.08.029","article-title":"Remote sensing based evapotranspiration and runoff modeling of agricultural, forest and urban flux sites in Denmark: From field to macro-scale","volume":"377","author":"Boegh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.08.028","article-title":"Evaluation of potential of multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis (MESMA) for surface coal mining affected area mapping in different world forest ecosystems","volume":"127","author":"Quintano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00122-8","article-title":"Optimization of endmembers for spectral mixture analysis","volume":"59","author":"Tompkins","year":"1997","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.03.018","article-title":"Hierarchical multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis (MESMA) of hyperspectral imagery for urban environments","volume":"113","author":"Franke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.04.017","article-title":"Multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis (MESMA) to map burn severity levels from landsat images in mediterranean countries","volume":"136","author":"Quintano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/2\/11\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:18:45Z","timestamp":1760210325000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/2\/11"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,4]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi5020011"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi5020011","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,4]]}}}