{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T15:41:05Z","timestamp":1770824465613,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,11]],"date-time":"2016-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1457654400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Soil moisture (SM) plays a key role in many environmental processes and has a high spatial and temporal variability. Collecting sample SM data through field surveys (e.g., for validation of remote sensing-derived products) can be very expensive and time consuming if a study area is large, and producing accurate SM maps from the sample point data is a difficult task as well. In this study, geospatial processing techniques are used to combine several geo-environmental layers relevant to SM (soil, geology, rainfall, land cover, etc.) into a land unit area (LUA) map, which delineates regions with relatively homogeneous geological\/geomorphological, land use\/land cover, and climate characteristics. This LUA map is used to guide the collection of sample SM data in the field, and the field data is finally spatially interpolated to create a wall-to-wall map of SM in the study area (Garmsar, Iran). The main goal of this research is to create a SM map in an arid area, using a land unit area (LUA) approach to obtain the most appropriate sample locations for collecting SM field data. Several environmental GIS layers, which have an impact on SM, were combined to generate a LUA map, and then field surveying was done in each class of the LUA map. A SM map was produced based on LUA, remote sensing data indexes, and spatial interpolation of the field survey sample data. The several interpolation methods (inverse distance weighting, kriging, and co-kriging) were evaluated for generating SM maps from the sample data. The produced maps were compared to each other and validated using ground truth data. The results show that the LUA approach is a reasonable method to create the homogenous field to introduce a representative sample for field soil surveying. The geostatistical SM map achieved adequate accuracy; however, trend analysis and distribution of the soil sample point locations within the LUA types should be further investigated to achieve even better results. Co-kriging produced the most accurate SM map of the study area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5030035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,14]],"date-time":"2016-03-14T11:03:45Z","timestamp":1457953425000},"page":"35","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Soil Moisture Mapping in an Arid Area Using a Land Unit Area (LUA) Sampling Approach and Geostatistical Interpolation Techniques"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5158-1648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saeid","family":"Gharechelou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Environmental Remote Sensing (CEReS), Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ryutaro","family":"Tateishi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Environmental Remote Sensing (CEReS), Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5706-4417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Environmental Remote Sensing (CEReS), Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1911-3585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brian","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0115, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Yuanyuan, D., and Yong, W. (2011, January 26\u201328). Research on the spatial interpolation methods of SM based on GIS. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"228","article-title":"A review of comparative spatial interpolation method in environmental sciences: Performance and impact factor","volume":"6","author":"Jin","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2007.05.001","article-title":"About regression-Kriging: From equation to case studies","volume":"33","author":"Tomislav","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"16","article-title":"Analysis and prediction of soil properties using local regression-Kriging","volume":"171\u2013173","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"117","article-title":"Soil water spatial distribution in dam farmland on the Loess Plateau, China","volume":"60","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Agric. Scand."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2011.11.003","article-title":"Changing controls of soil moisture spatial organization in the Shale Hills Catchment","volume":"173\u2013174","author":"Takagi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/S1002-0160(10)60049-5","article-title":"Comparing ordinary Kriging and regression Kriging for soil properties in contrasting landscapes","volume":"20","author":"Zhu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pedosphere"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7061(01)00074-X","article-title":"A comparison of prediction methods for the creation of field-extent soil property maps","volume":"103","author":"Bishop","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1007\/s11368-012-0481-5","article-title":"The multi-scale spatial variance of SM in the semi-arid Loess Plateau of China","volume":"12","author":"Xueling","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Soils Sediment."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenbaum, U., Bogena, H.R., Herbst, M., Huisman, J.A., Peterson, T.J., Weuthen, A., Western, A.W., and Vereecken, H. (2012). Seasonal and event dynamics of spatial SM patterns at the small catchment scale. Water Resour. Res., 48.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR011518"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proenv.2013.06.050","article-title":"A geostatistical approach to estimate SM as a function of geophysical data and soil attributes","volume":"19","author":"Quarto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proced. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, X., Fu, B., L\u00fc, Y., Sun, F., Wang, S., and Liu, M. (2013). Comparison of four spatial interpolation methods for estimating SM in a complex terrain catchment. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0054660"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"58","article-title":"Spatial variability mapping of some soil properties in El-Multagha agricultural project (Sudan) using geographic information systems (GIS) techniques","volume":"2","author":"Mohamed","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Soil Sci. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-16-1349-2012","article-title":"Spatial horizontal correlation characteristics in the land data assimilation of SM","volume":"16","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1109","article-title":"Spatial patterns of soil degradation in Mexico","volume":"6","author":"Marin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Song, H.Y., Zhang, S.J., and Fang, H. (2005, January 1\u20134). Study on the spatial variability and the sampling scheme of soil nutrients in the field based on GPS and GIS. Proceedings of the 27th Annual International Conference of the Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2005.1615844"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-010-0437-x","article-title":"Driving factors for forest fire occurrence in Durango State of Mexico: A geospatial perspective","volume":"20","author":"Diana","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goovaerts, P. (1997). Geostatistics for Natural Resources Evaluation, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195115383.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Grunwald, S., McSweeney, K., Lowery, B., and Rooney, D. (2007, January 18\u201322). Continuous description of soil attributes on a landscape in Southern Wisconsin. Proceedings of the ASA-CSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"175","article-title":"Practicing land consolidation in a changing world of land use planning","volume":"60","author":"Jacobs","year":"2000","journal-title":"Kart Plan."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Kevin, J., Jay, M., Ver, H., Konstantin, K., and Neil, L. Using ArcGIS, Geostatistical Analyst. Available online: http:\/\/dusk2.geo.orst.edu\/gis\/geostat_analyst.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Harahsheh, H., and Tateishi, R. (2000, January 28\u201330). Environmental GIS database and desertification mapping of West Asia. Proceedings of the Workshop of the Asian Region Thematic Programme Network on Desertification Monitoring and Assessment, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00131171","article-title":"The land unit a fundamental concept in landscape ecology, and its applications","volume":"3","author":"Zonneveld","year":"1989","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Juergensmeyer, J.C., and Roberts, T.E. (2013). Land Use Planning and Development Regulation Law, West Academic Publishing."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Vacca, A., and Marrone, V.A. (May, January 27). The land unit and soil capability map of Sardinia (Italy) at a 1: 50,000 scale: The pilot area of Pula-Capoterra. 20th World Congress of Soil Science, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2012.01.004","article-title":"Modeling landscape complexity for land use management in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil","volume":"29","author":"Papadimitriou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.4113\/jom.2010.1105","article-title":"Thematic maps for land-use planning and policy decisions in the Calaggio stream catchment area","volume":"6","author":"Lisio","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Maps."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Soil Survey Division Staff (1993). Soil Survey Manual 18."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Upchurch, D.R., Wilding, L.P., and Hartfield, J.L. (1988). Reclamation of Disturbed Lands, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2013.11.018","article-title":"A GIS based method for soil mapping in Sardinia, Italy: A geomatic approach","volume":"138","author":"Vacca","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"61","article-title":"Impact of spatial variability on interpretive modeling","volume":"39","author":"Wilding","year":"1994","journal-title":"Spec. PublSSSA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S1001-6279(09)60016-0","article-title":"A case study of spatial heterogeneity of SM in the Loess Plateau, western China: A geostatistical approach","volume":"24","author":"Bi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Sediment Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-3004(99)00117-X","article-title":"Geostatistical classification for remote sensing: An introduction","volume":"26","author":"Atkinsona","year":"2000","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Carter, M.R., and Gregorich, E.G. (1993). Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis, CRC Press."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/3\/35\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:20:33Z","timestamp":1760210433000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/3\/35"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,11]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi5030035"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi5030035","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,11]]}}}