{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T01:16:38Z","timestamp":1775178998948,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,29]],"date-time":"2016-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1480377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Incheon Green Environment Center","award":["16-04-03-60-61"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16-04-03-60-61"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global Positioning System (GPS) structural health monitoring data collection is one of the important systems in structure movement monitoring. However, GPS measurement error and noise limit the application of such systems. Many attempts have been made to adjust GPS measurements and eliminate their errors. Comparing common nonlinear methods used in the adjustment of GPS positioning for the monitoring of structures is the main objective of this study. Nonlinear Adaptive-Recursive Least Square (RLS), extended Kalman filter (EKF), and wavelet principal component analysis (WPCA) are presented and applied to improve the quality of GPS time series observations. Two real monitoring observation systems for the Mansoura railway and long-span Yonghe bridges are utilized to examine suitable methods used to assess bridge behavior under different load conditions. From the analysis of the results, it is concluded that the wavelet principal component is the best method to smooth low and high GPS sampling frequency observations. The evaluation of the bridges reveals the ability of the GPS systems to detect the behavior and damage of structures in both the time and frequency domains.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5120222","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,29]],"date-time":"2016-11-29T10:09:48Z","timestamp":1480414188000},"page":"222","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Adjustment and Assessment of the Measurements of Low and High Sampling Frequencies of GPS Real-Time Monitoring of Structural Movement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Mosbeh","family":"Kaloop","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Incheon National University, 22012 Incheon, Korea"},{"name":"Incheon Disaster Prevention Research Center, Incheon National University, 22012 Incheon, Korea"},{"name":"Department of Public Works and Civil Engineering, Mansoura University, 35516 Mansoura, Egypt"}]},{"given":"Jong","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Incheon National University, 22012 Incheon, Korea"},{"name":"Incheon Disaster Prevention Research Center, Incheon National University, 22012 Incheon, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6568-3522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emad","family":"Elbeltagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Structural Engineering, Mansoura University, 35516 Mansoura, Egypt"},{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Mansoura Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology, 35111 Talkha, Egypt"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000475","article-title":"Summary review of GPS technology for structural health monitoring","volume":"139","author":"Im","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.1501","article-title":"Recent research and applications of GPS-based monitoring technology for high-rise structures","volume":"20","author":"Yi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2012.12.015","article-title":"Noise characteristics of high-frequency, short-duration GPS records from analysis of identical, collocated instruments","volume":"46","author":"Moschas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Amiri-Simkooei, A.R., Tiberius, C., and Teunissen, P.J.G. (June, January 29). Noise characteristics in high precision GPS positioning. Proceedings of the 6th Hotine-Marussi Symposium on Theoretical and Computational Geodesy, Wuhan, China."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2006.02.001","article-title":"Monitoring dynamic and quasi-static deformations of large flexible engineering structures with GPS: Accuracy, limitations and promises","volume":"28","author":"Nickitopoulou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2010.09.013","article-title":"Measurement of the dynamic displacements and of the modal frequencies of a short-span pedestrian bridge using GPS and an accelerometer","volume":"33","author":"Moschas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2014.10.010","article-title":"Identification of dynamic displacements and modal frequencies of a medium-span suspension bridge using multimode GNSS processing","volume":"81","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moschas, F., and Stiros, S. (2015). Dynamic deflections of a stiff footbridge using 100-Hz GNSS and accelerometer data. J. Surv. Eng.","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000146"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2013.09.046","article-title":"Multi input-single output models identification of tower bridge movements using GPS monitoring system","volume":"47","author":"Kaloop","year":"2014","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2012.07.018","article-title":"Experimental assessment of high-rate GPS receivers for deformation monitoring of bridge","volume":"46","author":"Yi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24428","DOI":"10.3390\/s150924428","article-title":"Optimizing the de-noise neural network model for GPS time-series monitoring of structures","volume":"15","author":"Kaloop","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Feng, M.Q., Fukuda, Y., Chen, Y., Soyoz, S., and Lee, S. (2008). Long-Term Structural Performance Monitoring of Bridges. Phase II\u202f: Development of Baseline Model and Methodology\u2014Report to the California Department of Transportation, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California. CA07-0245."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15307","DOI":"10.3390\/s131115307","article-title":"A Kalman filter implementation for precision improvement in Low-Cost GPS positioning of tractors","volume":"13","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2686","DOI":"10.4304\/jcp.6.12.2686-2691","article-title":"Data processing based on wavelet analysis in structure health monitoring system","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Comput."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s11803-007-0746-y","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of long-span suspension bridges using wavelet packet analysis","volume":"6","author":"Ding","year":"2007","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"273","article-title":"Wavelet de-noising of GNSS based bridge health monitoring data","volume":"8","author":"Ogundipe","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2014.983186","article-title":"De-noising of GPS structural monitoring observation error using wavelet analysis","volume":"7","author":"Kaloop","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Adaptive Kalman filter for noise identification","volume":"3","author":"Oussalah","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Conf. Noise Vib. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2013.09.015","article-title":"A novel hybrid fusion algorithm to bridge the period of GPS outages using low-cost INS","volume":"41","author":"Bhatt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3390\/s120101014","article-title":"Optimal methods of RTK-GPS\/accelerometer integration to monitor the displacement of structures","volume":"12","author":"Hwang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-006-0092-2","article-title":"An integrated GPS-accelerometer data processing technique for structural deformation monitoring","volume":"80","author":"Chan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"265","article-title":"Optimal GPS\/accelerometer integration algorithm for monitoring the vertical structural dynamics","volume":"8","author":"Meng","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2013.08.014","article-title":"Talkha steel highway bridge monitoring and movement identification using RTK-GPS technique","volume":"46","author":"Elnabwy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"40","article-title":"Recursive least squares adaptive filter a better ISI compensator","volume":"3","author":"Sharma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2004.826167","article-title":"Recursive least squares constant modulus algorithm for blind adaptive array","volume":"52","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"25","article-title":"Nonlinear systems identification using the Volterra model","volume":"1","author":"Budura","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Symp. Syst. Theory"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/79.127998","article-title":"Adaptive polynomial filters","volume":"8","author":"Mathews","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Volterra Series and Nonlinear Adaptive Filters. Available online: http:\/\/guillaume.perrin74.free.fr\/ChalmersMT2012\/Papers\/NonLinearFiltering\/seminar04.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Haykin, S. (2014). Adaptive Filter Theory Fifth Edition, Pearson."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trauth, M.H. (2007). Matlab\u00ae Recipes for Earth Sciences: Second Edition, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-72749-1"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Kalman filter for vision tracking","volume":"8","author":"Cuevas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.171","article-title":"An adaptive extended Kalman filter for structural damage identifications II: Unknown inputs","volume":"44","author":"Yang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Struct. Control Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1002\/eqe.151","article-title":"Parameter identification of inelastic structures under dynamic loads","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"Kalman and extended Kalman filters\u202f: Concept, derivation and properties","volume":"2","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2004","journal-title":"Inst. Syst. Robot. Lisboa Port."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Fourie, S. (2002). Advanced process monitoring using wavelet and non-linear principal component analysis. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pretoria]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.690440712","article-title":"Multiscale PCA with application to multivariate statistical process monitoring","volume":"44","author":"Bakshi","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIChE J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaloop, M., Elbeltagi, E., and Elnabwy, M. (2015). Bridge monitoring with wavelet principal component and spectrum analysis based on GPS measurements: Case study of the Mansoura Bridge in Egypt. J. Perform. Constr. Facil.","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000559"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2013.04.078","article-title":"Network RTK: A case study in Florida","volume":"46","author":"Berber","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.1559","article-title":"SMC structural health monitoring benchmark problem using monitored data from an actual cable-stayed bridge","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Struct. Control Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2010.496856","article-title":"Reliability assessment of cable-stayed bridges based on structural health monitoring techniques","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaloop, M.R., and Hu, J.W. (2016). Dynamic performance analysis of the towers of a Long-Span bridge based on GPS monitoring technique. J. Sensors.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7494817"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaloop, M.R., and Hu, J.W. (2015). Stayed-cable bridge damage detection and localization based on accelerometer health monitoring measurements. Shock Vib.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/102680"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/12\/222\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:27:37Z","timestamp":1760210857000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/5\/12\/222"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,29]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi5120222"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi5120222","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,29]]}}}