{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:10:46Z","timestamp":1760242246264,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,14]],"date-time":"2017-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1487030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smartphones have become indispensable in our daily lives. Their various embedded sensors have inspired innovations in mobile applications\u2014especially for indoor navigation. However, the accuracy, reliability and generalizability of navigation all continue to struggle in environments lacking a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Pedestrian Dead Reckoning (PDR) is a popular method for indoor pedestrian navigation. Unfortunately, due to its fundamental principles, even a small navigation error will amplify itself, step by step, generally leading to the need for supplementary resources to maintain navigation accuracy. Virtually all mobile devices and most robots contain a basic camera sensor, which has led to the popularity of image-based localization, and vice versa. However, all of the image-based localization requires continuous images for uninterrupted positioning. Furthermore, the solutions provided by either image-based localization or a PDR are usually in a relative coordinate system. Therefore, this research proposes a system, which uses space resection-aided PDR with geo-referenced images of a previously mapped environment to enable seamless navigation and solve the shortcomings of PDR and image-based localization, and evaluates the performance of space resection with different assumptions using a smartphone. The indoor mobile mapping system (IMMS) is used for the effective production of geo-referenced images. The preliminary results indicate that the proposed algorithm is suitable for universal pedestrian indoor navigation, achieving the accuracy required for commercial applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6020043","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,15]],"date-time":"2017-02-15T10:09:07Z","timestamp":1487153347000},"page":"43","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Performance Analysis of Space Resection-Aided Pedestrian Dead Reckoning for Smartphone Navigation in a Mapped Indoor Environment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Kai-Wei","family":"Chiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics, National Cheng-Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7421-2362","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jhen-Kai","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics, National Cheng-Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shih-Huan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics, National Cheng-Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7915-2477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsiu-Wen","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics, National Cheng-Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chien-Hsun","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics, National Cheng-Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Mautz, R. (2012). Indoor Positioning Technologies. [Habilitation Thesis, Eidgen\u00f6ssische Technische Hochschule Z\u00fcrich]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2012.121912.00075","article-title":"A survey of indoor inertial positioning systems for pedestrians","volume":"15","author":"Harle","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500165","article-title":"The national human activity pattern survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants","volume":"11","author":"Klepeis","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Retscher, G., and Hecht, T. (2012, January 13\u201315). Investigation of location capabilities of four different smartphones for lbs navigation applications. Proceeddings of the 2012 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2012.6418892"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17208","DOI":"10.3390\/s121217208","article-title":"A hybrid smartphone indoor positioning solution for mobile LBS","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Agata, B., and Robert, H. (2013, January 8\u201312). Walk detection and step counting on unconstrained smartphones. Proceedings of the 2013 ACM international joint conference on Pervasive and ubiquitous computing, Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Weinberg, H. (2002). Application Notes American Devices, Analog Devices, Inc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, N.H., Truong, P.H., and Jeong, G.M. (2016). Step-detection and adaptive step-length estimation for pedestrian dead-reckoning at various walking speeds using a smartphone. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091423"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Tsai, G.-J., Liao, J.-K., Chu, H.-J., and Chiang, K.-W. (2014, January 8\u201312). The performance analysis of a smartphone based three dimension pedestrian dead-reckoning and map-matching algorithm for indoor navigation applications. Proceedings of the 27th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Tampa, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Groves, P.D., Pulford, G.W., Littlefield, C.A., Nash, D.L.J., and Mather, C.J. (2007, January 25\u201328). Inertial navigation versus pedestrian dead reckoning optimizing the integration. Proceedings of the 20th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation, Fort Worth, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2011.09.003","article-title":"In-plane dead reckoning with knee and waist attached gyroscopes","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4781","DOI":"10.3390\/s130404781","article-title":"On calibrating the sensor errors of a pdr-based indoor localization system","volume":"13","author":"Lan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Afzal, M.H. (2011). Use of earth\u2019s magnetic field for pedestrian navigation. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calgary]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12455","DOI":"10.3390\/s120912455","article-title":"Swarm optimization-based magnetometer calibration for personal handheld devices","volume":"12","author":"Ali","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Wang, J., Liu, C., Zhang, L., and Li, Z. (2016). Integrated WiFi\/PDR\/Smartphone using an adaptive system noise extended kalman filter algorithm for indoor localization. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5020008"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2579265","article-title":"Smartphone inertial sensor-based indoor localization and tracking with ibeacon corrections","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Jiang, M., Guo, Z., Hu, N., Sun, Z., and Liu, J. (2016). An indoor positioning method for smartphones using landmarks and PDR. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122135"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, J., Hu, X., Cheng, W., and Fan, H. (2016). Gridiloc: A backtracking grid filter for fusing the grid model with PDR using smartphone sensors. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122137"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, X., Shao, W., Zhao, F., Wang, Q., Li, D., and Luo, H. (2016, January 4\u20137). WiMag: Multimode fusion localization system based on Magnetic\/WiFi\/PDR. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2016.7743700"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Z., Jin, Y., Zhou, M., Wu, Z., and Li, Z. (2016). Wi-Fi\/MARG integration for indoor pedestrian localization. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122100"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Luo, H., Zhao, F., and Shao, W. (2016, January 4\u20137). An indoor self-localization algorithm using the calibration of the online magnetic fingerprints and indoor landmarks. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2016.7743595"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2013.0389","article-title":"Review and classification of vision-based localisation techniques in unknown environments","volume":"8","author":"Deambrogio","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7262","DOI":"10.3390\/s110707262","article-title":"Visual odometry based on structural matching of local invariant features using stereo camera sensor","volume":"11","author":"Nunez","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18742","DOI":"10.3390\/s150818742","article-title":"RGB-D SLAM combining visual odometry and extended information filter","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deretey, E., Ahmed, M.T., Marshall, J.A., and Greenspan, M. (2015, January 13\u201316). Visual indoor positioning with a single camera using pnp. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Banff, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2015.7346756"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grie\u00dfbach, D., Baumbach, D., and Zuev, S. (2014, January 27\u201330). Stereo-vision-aided inertial navigation for unknown indoor and outdoor environments. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2014.7275548"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, J.Z., Corso, N., Turner, E., and Zakhor, A. (2013, January 28\u201331). Reduced-complexity data acquisition system for image-based localization in indoor environments. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Montb\u00e9liard, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2013.6817866"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Hu, Q., Wu, M., and Gao, Y. (2016). An imaging sensor-aided vision navigation approach that uses a geo-referenced image database. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16020166"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Wolf, P.R., and DeWitt, B.A. (2000). Elements of Photogrammetry: With Applications in GIS, McGraw Hill. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9047","DOI":"10.3390\/s130709047","article-title":"Seamless positioning and navigation by using geo-referenced images and multi-sensor data","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10599","DOI":"10.3390\/s130810599","article-title":"The performance analysis of a real-time integrated INS\/GPS vehicle navigation system with abnormal GPS measurement elimination","volume":"13","author":"Chiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Chu, C.H., Chiang, K.W., and Lin, C.A. (2013, January 16\u201320). The performance analysis of a portable mobile mapping system with different gnss processing strategies. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 26th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ellum, C.M. (2001). The development of a backpack mobile mapping system. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Calgary]."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"159","article-title":"Pedestrain mobile mapping system for indoor environments based on mems imu and range camera","volume":"22","author":"Haala","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Photogram. Cartogr. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Chen, R., Pei, L., and Chen, Y. (2011, January 20\u201323). A smart phone based pdr solution for indoor navigation. Proceedings of the 24th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang, K.W., Liao, J.K., Tsai, G.J., and Chang, H.W. (2016). The performance analysis of the map-aided fuzzy decision tree based on the pedestrian dead reckoning algorithm in an indoor environment. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010034"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/6\/2\/43\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:28:11Z","timestamp":1760207291000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/6\/2\/43"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,14]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi6020043"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi6020043","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,14]]}}}