{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T13:27:07Z","timestamp":1785763627088,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,30]],"date-time":"2017-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1490832000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It has been long recognised that the underlying spatial structure plays an important role when navigating in urban environments. However, the modelling of the forms and properties that emerge from the city is still a difficult issue to address. The objective of the research developed in this paper is to study and represent two important qualities of urban environments as identified by Lynch and Bentley in their respective seminal works, that is, legibility and permeability. Our objective is to identify and implement a series of metrics applied to the layout of a given city that reflects these concepts of legibility, and then to evaluate to which degree these measures are correlated to different human perceptions of the city, particularly differences between humans who have or have not had an experience of a given urban environment. The whole approach is applied to the context of a neighbourhood of the city of Tehran in Iran. The findings show that permeability match relatively well with residents\u2019 evaluations while legibility rather complies with newcomers\u2019 evaluations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6040101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,30]],"date-time":"2017-03-30T09:29:15Z","timestamp":1490866155000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["The Legibility and Permeability of Cities: Examining the Role of Spatial Data and Metrics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5125-2089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tolue","family":"Silavi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, North Kargar Ave., Jalal Al. Ahmad Crossing, Tehran 14395515, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Farshad","family":"Hakimpour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, North Kargar Ave., Jalal Al. Ahmad Crossing, Tehran 14395515, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5586-1997","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christophe","family":"Claramunt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Naval Academy Research Institute, Lanv\u00e9oc-Poulmic, BP 600, Brest Naval, Brest 29240, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Farshad","family":"Nourian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urbanism, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, 16th Azar St., Enghelab Sq., Tehran 14155645, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Kaplan, R., and Kaplan, S. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective, CUP Archive."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2008.9635147","article-title":"Ask for directions or use a map: A field experiment on spatial orientation and wayfinding in an urban environment","volume":"53","author":"Meilinger","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Spat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2009.09.008","article-title":"Sustainable urban expansion and transportation in a growing megacity: Consequences of urban sprawl for mobility on the urban fringe of beijing","volume":"34","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916512470134","article-title":"Park use among youth and adults examination of individual, social, and urban form factors","volume":"46","author":"Baran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916502238868","article-title":"Just down the road a piece: The development of topological knowledge of building layouts","volume":"35","author":"Haq","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916502238864","article-title":"Space syntax and spatial cognition: Or why the axial line?","volume":"35","author":"Penn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hillier, B., and Hanson, J. (1984). The Social Logic of Space, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511597237"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City, The MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"338","article-title":"Evaluation of swedish outdoor living environments: Cultural influence on environmental perceptions","volume":"23","author":"Cross","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Archit. Plan. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bentley, I., Alcock, A., Murrain, P., McGlynn, S., and Smith, G. (1985). Responsive Environments: A Manual for Designers, The Architectural Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916512446808","article-title":"Effects of multiple boundaries on perceived spaciousness and enclosure","volume":"45","author":"Stamps","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"35","article-title":"Responsive environments, place and presence","volume":"3","author":"McCall","year":"2005","journal-title":"PsychNol. J."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oc, T., and Tiesdell, S. (2003). Public Places, Urban Spaces, Architectural Press."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916503035004001","article-title":"Searching for legibility","volume":"35","author":"Herzog","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1068\/b31138","article-title":"Isovists, enclosure, and permeability theory","volume":"32","author":"Stamps","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Greene, M., Reyes, J., and Castro, A. (2012). Eighth International Space Syntax Symposium, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (PUC)."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Greene, M., Reyes, J., and Castro, A. (2012). Eighth International Space Syntax Symposium, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (PUC)."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1068\/b34047t","article-title":"Studying cities to learn about minds: Some possible implications of space syntax for spatial cognition","volume":"39","author":"Hillier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s100219900011","article-title":"Quantifying landscape spatial pattern: What is the state of the art","volume":"1","author":"Gustafson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2010.10.004","article-title":"Landscape metrics in the analysis of urban land use patterns: A case study in a spanish metropolitan area","volume":"99","author":"Aguilera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2011.03.017","article-title":"Mapping form and function in urban areas: An approach based on urban metrics and continuous impervious surface data","volume":"102","author":"Voordea","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2013.10.002","article-title":"A comparison of spatial autocorrelation indices and landscape metrics in measuring urban landscape fragmentation","volume":"121","author":"Fan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2014.905638","article-title":"An analysis of changes in the urban landscape composition and configuration in the sancaktepe district of istanbul metropolitan city, turkey","volume":"30","author":"Kowe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2015.1027289","article-title":"Examining urban sprawl in europe using spatial metrics","volume":"30","author":"Triantakonstantis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2013.01.001","article-title":"The impact of urban design features and qualities on walkability and health in under-construction environments: The case of hashtgerd new town in iran","volume":"31","author":"Bahrainy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.2008.01085.x","article-title":"An approach for the classification of urban building structures based on discriminant analysis techniques","volume":"12","author":"Steiniger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.2011.01266.x","article-title":"Giving the \u2018right\u2019 route directions: The requirements for pedestrian navigation systems","volume":"15","author":"Schroder","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.1997.tb00063.x","article-title":"Human conceptions of spaces: Implications for GIS","volume":"2","author":"Freundschuh","year":"1997","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi4031627","article-title":"Walk this way: Improving pedestrian agent-based models through scene activity analysis","volume":"4","author":"Crooks","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Hijazi, I., Koenig, R., Lv, Z., Zhong, C., and Schmitt, G. (2016). Assessing essential qualities of urban space with emotional and visual data based on gis technique. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5110218"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1057\/udi.2011.10","article-title":"Visual evaluation of urban streetscapes: How do public preferences reconcile with those held by experts?","volume":"16","author":"Gjerde","year":"2011","journal-title":"Urban Des. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916511402059","article-title":"Does intelligibility affect place legibility? Understanding the relationship between objective and subjective evaluations of the urban environment","volume":"44","author":"Long","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/1063073032000175390","article-title":"Searching for legible city form: Kevin lynch\u2019s theory in contemporary perspective","volume":"10","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Urban Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916509337287","article-title":"Effects of permeability on perceived enclosure and spaciousness","volume":"42","author":"Stamps","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1680\/muen.14.00009","article-title":"Design of bicycling suitability maps for hilly cities","volume":"168","author":"Tralhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Munic. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2015.11.005","article-title":"Design of a spatial database to analyze the forms and responsiveness of an urban environment using an ontological approach","volume":"52","author":"Silavi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2003.12.001","article-title":"The role of spatial metrics in the analysis and modeling of urban land use change","volume":"29","author":"Herold","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12009","article-title":"A patch-based cellular automaton for simulating land-use changes at fine spatial resolution","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGarigal, K., and Marks, B.J. (1995). Fragstats: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure.","DOI":"10.2737\/PNW-GTR-351"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C., and Ene, E. (2016, February 25). Fragstats: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Available online: http:\/\/www.umass.edu\/landeco\/research\/fragstats\/fragstats.html."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"161","article-title":"Integration of space syntax into gis for modelling urban spaces","volume":"2","author":"Jiang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"TAC (1999). Geometric Design Guide for Canadian Roads Canada, Transportation Association of Canada."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"229","article-title":"Mapping meaning in the city image: A case study of kandy, sri lanka","volume":"28","author":"Silva","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Archit. Plan. Res."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/6\/4\/101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:31:34Z","timestamp":1760207494000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/6\/4\/101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,30]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi6040101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi6040101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,30]]}}}