{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T13:38:30Z","timestamp":1766065110517,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,21]],"date-time":"2018-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1516492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The concealment and complex spatial relationships of urban underground pipelines present challenges in managing them. Recently, augmented reality (AR) has been a hot topic around the world, because it can enhance our perception of reality by overlaying information about the environment and its objects onto the real world. Using AR, underground pipelines can be displayed accurately, intuitively, and in real time. We analyzed the characteristics of AR and their application in underground pipeline management. We mainly focused on the AR pipeline rendering procedure based on the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) technology. First, in aiming to improve the spatial accuracy of pipeline rendering, we used differential corrections received from the Ground-Based Augmentation System to compute the precise coordinates of users in real time, which helped us accurately retrieve and draw pipelines near the users, and by scene recognition the accuracy can be further improved. Second, in terms of pipeline rendering, we used Visual-Inertial Odometry (VIO) to track the rendered objects and made some improvements to visual effects, which can provide steady dynamic tracking of pipelines even in relatively markerless environments and outdoors. Finally, we used the occlusion method based on real-time 3D reconstruction to realistically express the immersion effect of underground pipelines. We compared our methods to the existing methods and concluded that the method proposed in this research improves the spatial accuracy of pipeline rendering and the portability of the equipment. Moreover, the updating of our rendering procedure corresponded with the moving of the user\u2019s location, thus we achieved a dynamic rendering of pipelines in the real environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7010032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,22]],"date-time":"2018-01-22T04:51:13Z","timestamp":1516596673000},"page":"32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Real-Time Location-Based Rendering of Urban Underground Pipelines"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Wei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]},{"given":"Chenrong","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7327-7575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yibin","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]},{"given":"Yanjie","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]},{"given":"Ge","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"},{"name":"Laboratory for Regional Oceanography and Numerical Modeling, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"167","article-title":"Research on the utility tunnel location technology based on ZigBee communication network","volume":"42","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"C e Ca"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Qingquan, L.I. (2003). Research on 3D Visualization of Underground Pipeline, Editorial Board of Geomatics & Information Science of Wuhan University."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-011-4193-2","article-title":"Geographic analysis-oriented Virtual Geographic Environment: Framework, structure and functions","volume":"54","author":"Lu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1080\/00045608.2012.689234","article-title":"Virtual Geographic Environment: A Workspace for Computer-Aided Geographic Experiments","volume":"103","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, Z., Li, X., Hu, J., Yin, L., Zhang, B., and Feng, S. (2015, January 12\u201314). Virtual geographic environment based coach passenger flow forecasting. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Virtual Environments for Measurement Systems and Applications, Shenzhen, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIVEMSA.2015.7158618"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1080\/19475683.2014.905492","article-title":"Reality-virtuality fusional avatar-based noise measurement and visualization in online virtual geographic environment","volume":"20","author":"Che","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Gis"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"822","article-title":"Preliminary study on virtual geographic environment cognition and representation","volume":"14","author":"Hui","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/38.963459","article-title":"Recent Advances in Augmented Reality","volume":"21","author":"Azuma","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01682023","article-title":"A Touring Machine: Prototyping 3D Mobile Augmented Reality Systems for Exploring the Urban Environment","volume":"1","author":"Feiner","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pers. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sutherland, I.E. (1968, January 9\u201311). A head-mounted three dimensional display. Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1476589.1476686"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Roberts, G.W., Evans, A., and Dodson, A. (2002, January 19\u201326). The Use of Augmented Reality, GPS and INS for Subsurface Data Visualisation. Proceedings of the FIG XXII International Congress, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-008-0204-5","article-title":"Handheld Augmented Reality for underground infrastructure visualization","volume":"13","author":"Schall","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pers. Ubiquitous Comput."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1201\/b11080-18","article-title":"A survey on augmented maps and environments","volume":"9","author":"Schall","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Web-Based GIS Mapp. Serv. Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"2273","article-title":"Research on Constructing Outdoor Augmented Reality System Based on Improved ARToolKit","volume":"21","author":"Yong","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Syst. Simul."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Wagner, D., and Schmalstieg, D. (2003, January 7). ARToolkit on PocketPC platform. Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE International Augmented Reality Toolkit Workshop, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Cushnan, D., and El Habbak, H. (2013). Developing AR Games for iOS and Android, Packt Publishing Ltd."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kato, H., and Billinghurst, M. (2002, January 20\u201321). Marker Tracking and HMD Calibration for a Video-Based Augmented Reality Conferencing System. Proceedings of the IEEE and ACM International Workshop on Augmented Reality, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Siltanen, S. (2012). Theory and Applications of Marker Based Augmented Reality, VTT."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"11","article-title":"Comparative Study of Augmented Reality Sdk\u2019s","volume":"5","author":"Amin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davison, A.J. (2003, January 13\u201316). Real-Time Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping with a Single Camera. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Nice, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2003.1238654"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Engel, J., Sch\u00f6ps, T., and Cremers, D. (2014). LSD-SLAM: Large-Scale Direct Monocular SLAM, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10605-2_54"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2006.1678144","article-title":"Simultaneous Localization and Mapping: Part I","volume":"13","author":"Bailey","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2006.1678144","article-title":"Simultaneous localisation and mapping (slam) part 2: State of the art","volume":"13","author":"Bailey","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2007.1049","article-title":"MonoSLAM: Real-Time Single Camera SLAM","volume":"29","author":"Davison","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364910388963","article-title":"Visual-inertial navigation, mapping and localization: A scalable real-time causal approach","volume":"30","author":"Jones","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364914554813","article-title":"Keyframe-based visual-inertial odometry using nonlinear optimization","volume":"34","author":"Leutenegger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marder-Eppstein, E. (2016). Project Tango, ACM SIGGRAPH 2016 Real-Time Live.","DOI":"10.1145\/2933540.2933550"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913481251","article-title":"High-precision, consistent EKF-based visual\u2013inertial odometry","volume":"32","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.3390\/s140100927","article-title":"Precise point positioning with the BeiDou navigation satellite system","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klingensmith, M., Dryanovski, I., Srinivasa, S., and Xiao, J. (2015). Chisel: Real Time Large Scale 3D Reconstruction Onboard a Mobile Device using Spatially Hashed Signed Distance Fields. Robot. Sci. Syst., 4.","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2015.XI.040"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schops, T., Sattler, T., Hane, C., and Pollefeys, M. (2015, January 19\u201322). 3D Modeling on the Go: Interactive 3D Reconstruction of Large-Scale Scenes on Mobile Devices. Proceedings of the International Conference on 3d Vision, Lyon, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DV.2015.40"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"57","article-title":"Rigorous Formula for Direct Calculating Parameter in 3D Transformation","volume":"5","author":"Jili","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"930","article-title":"Enhancements of Long Term Ionospheric Anomaly Monitoring for the Ground-Based Augmentation System","volume":"8034","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Tech. Meet. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Yunck, T.P., Bertiger, W.I., Lichten, S.M., Mannucci, A.J., Muellerschoen, R.J., and Wu, S.C. (1998). Robust Real-Time Wide-Area Differential GPS Navigation. (5,828,336), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2008.2004514","article-title":"Fast and Incremental Method for Loop-Closure Detection Using Bags of Visual Words","volume":"24","author":"Angeli","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"26","article-title":"Development and Application of GPS Ground-based Augmentation System","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gnss World China"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Salas, M., Latif, Y., Reid, I.D., and Montiel, J.M.M. (2018, January 18). Trajectory Alignment and Evaluation in SLAM: Horn\u2019s Method vs Alignment on the Manifold. Available online: http:\/\/webdiis.unizar.es\/~msalasg\/docs\/rss15.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2011.943233","article-title":"Visual Odometry: Part I: The First 30 Years and Fundamentals","volume":"18","author":"Scaramuzza","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913509675","article-title":"Camera-IMU-based localization: Observability analysis and consistency improvement","volume":"33","author":"Hesch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newcombe, R.A., Izadi, S., Hilliges, O., Molyneaux, D., Kim, D., Davison, A.J., Kohi, P., Shotton, J., Hodges, S., and Fitzgibbon, A. (2012, January 26\u201329). KinectFusion: Real-time dense surface mapping and tracking. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality, Basel, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2011.6092378"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/1\/32\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:52:02Z","timestamp":1760194322000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/1\/32"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,21]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi7010032"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi7010032","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2220-9964"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,21]]}}}