{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T00:12:08Z","timestamp":1777162328623,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]],"date-time":"2018-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1517356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Henan scientific and technological projects","award":["142101510005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["142101510005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urban warfare has become one of the main forms of modern combat in the twenty-first century. The main reason why urban warfare results in hundreds of casualties is that the situational information of the combatant is insufficient. Accessing information via an Augmented Reality system can elevate combatants\u2019 situational awareness to effectively improve the efficiency of decision-making and reduce the injuries. This paper begins with the concept of Urban Warfare Augmented Reality (UWAR) and illuminates the objectives of developing UWAR, i.e., transparent battlefield, intuitional perception and natural interaction. Real-time outdoor registration, information presentation and natural interaction are presented as key technologies of a practical UWAR system. Then, the history and current research state of these technologies are summarized and their future developments are highlighted from three perspectives, i.e., (1) Better integration with Geographic Information System and Virtual Geographic Environment; (2) More intelligent software; (3) More powerful hardware.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7020046","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]],"date-time":"2018-01-31T12:41:24Z","timestamp":1517402484000},"page":"46","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Survey on Urban Warfare Augmented Reality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Xiong","family":"You","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhengzhou Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Zhengzhou 50052, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weiwei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhengzhou Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Zhengzhou 50052, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhengzhou Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Zhengzhou 50052, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2373-8799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jian","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhengzhou Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Zhengzhou 50052, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of USA (U.S. Department of Defense, State of Washington, USA) (2008). Urban Leader Tactical Response, Awareness & Visualization (ULTRA-Vis)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, D., Menozzi, A., Clipp, B., Menozzi, A., Clipp, B., and Russler, P. (2012). Soldier-worn augmented reality system for tactical icon visualization. Head- and Helmet-Mounted Displays XVII; and Display Technologies and Applications for Defense. SPIE, 8383.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.921290"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Livingston, M.A., Swan, J.E., and Simon, J.J. (2004, January 24\u201326). Evaluating system capabilities and user performance in the battle eld augmented reality system. Proceedings of the NIST\/DARPA Workshop on Performance Metrics for Intelligent Systems, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Colbert, H.J., Tack, D.W., and Bossi, L.C.L. (2005). Augmented Reality for Battlefield Awareness, HumanSystems\u00ae Incorporated. DRDC Toronto CR-2005-053."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"115","article-title":"The use of augmented reality in command and control situation awareness","volume":"38","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Mil. S. Afr. J. Mil. Stud."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"47","article-title":"Augmented Reality for Precision Navigation-Enhancing performance in High-Stress Operations","volume":"23","author":"Zysk","year":"2012","journal-title":"GPS World"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kenny, R.J. (2015). Augmented Reality at the Tactical and Operational Levels of War, Naval War College Newport United States.","DOI":"10.21236\/AD1000872"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Julier, S., Baillot, Y., and Lanzagorta, M. (2000, January 9\u201311). BARS: Battlefield Augmented Reality System. Nato Symposium on Information Processing Techniques for Military Systems. Proceedings of the NATO Symposium on Information Processing Techniques for Military Systems, Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"947004:1","article-title":"Augmented reality technology for day\/night situational awareness for the dismounted Soldier","volume":"9470","author":"Gans","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2018, January 01). Heads Up: Augmented Reality Prepares for the Battlefield. Available online: https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/information-technology\/."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2018, January 01). Heads-Up Display to Give Soldiers Improved Situational Awareness. Available online: https:\/\/www.army.mil\/."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01682023","article-title":"A touring machine: Prototyping 3D mobile augmented reality systems for exploring the urban environment","volume":"1","author":"Feiner","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pers. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menozzi, A., Clipp, B., and Wenger, E. (2014, January 5\u20138). Development of vision-aided navigation for a wearable outdoor augmented reality system. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium\u2014PLANS 2014, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2014.6851442"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GC003026","article-title":"An ellipsoidal harmonic representation of Earth\u2019s lithospheric magnetic field to degree and order 720","volume":"11","author":"Maus","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2014.27","article-title":"Global localization from monocular slam on a mobile phone","volume":"20","author":"Ventura","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Visual. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hays, J., and Efros, A.A. (2008, January 23\u201328). IM2GPS: Estimating geographic information from a single image. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2008.4587784"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kalogerakis, E., Vesselova, O., and Hays, J. (October, January 29). Image sequence geolocation with human travel priors. Proceedings of the IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schindler, G., Brown, M., and Szeliski, R. (2007, January 17\u201322). City-scale location recognition. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2007.383150"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., and Kosecka, J. (2006, January 4\u201316). Image based localization in urban environments. Proceedings of the IEEE Third International Symposium on 3D Data Processing, Visualization, and Transmission, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DPVT.2006.80"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Robertson, D.P., and Cipolla, R. (2004, January 7\u20139). An Image-Based System for Urban Navigation. Proceedings of the 15th British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC\u201904), Kingston-upon-Thames, UK."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zamir, A.R., and Shah, M. (2010, January 5\u201311). Accurate image localization based on google maps street view. Proceedings of the 11th European Conference on Computer Vision, Crete, Greece.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-15561-1_19"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Vaca, C.G., Zamir, A.R., and Shah, M. (2012, January 16\u201321). City scale geo-spatial trajectory estimation of a moving camera. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Providence, RI, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irschara, A., Zach, C., and Frahm, J.M. (2009, January 20\u201325). From structure-from-motion point clouds to fast location recognition. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW.2009.5206587"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Klopschitz, M., Irschara, A., and Reitmayr, G. (2010, January 17\u201320). Robust incremental structure from motion. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on 3D Data Processing, Visualization and Transmission (3DPVT), Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02028352","article-title":"Review and analysis of solutions of the three point perspective pose estimation problem","volume":"13","author":"Haralick","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Haralick, R.M., Lee, D., and Ottenburg, K. (1991, January 3\u20136). Analysis and solutions of the three point perspective pose estimation problem. Proceedings of the 1991 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Lahaina, Maui, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Snavely, N., and Huttenlocher, D.P. (2010, January 5\u201311). Location recognition using prioritized feature matching. Proceedings of the 11th European Conference on Computer Vision, Crete, Greece.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-15552-9_57"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Snavely, N., and Dan, H. (2012, January 7\u201313). Worldwide Pose Estimation Using 3D Point Clouds. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Computer Vision, Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-33718-5_2"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Lim, H., Sinha, S.N., and Cohen, M.F. (2012, January 16\u201321). Real-time image-based 6-dof localization in large-scale environments. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Providence, RI, USA."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364914561101","article-title":"Real-time monocular image-based 6-DoF localization","volume":"34","author":"Lim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2009.99","article-title":"Real-time detection and tracking for augmented reality on mobile phones","volume":"16","author":"Wagner","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Visual. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arth, C., Wagner, D., and Klopschitz, M. (2009, January 19\u201322). Wide area localization on mobile phones. Proceedings of the 8th IEEE International Symposium on ISMAR 2009, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2009.5336494"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baatz, G., Saurer, O., and K\u00f6ser, K. (2012, January 7\u201313). Large Scale Visual Geo-Localization of Images in Mountainous Terrain. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Computer Vision, Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-33709-3_37"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, H., Gallagher, A., and Chen, T. (2014, January 23\u201328). GPS refinement and camera orientation estimation from a single image and a 2D map. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Columbus, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW.2014.31"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cham, T.J., Ciptadi, A., and Tan, W.C. (2010, January 13\u201318). Estimating camera pose from a single urban ground-view omnidirectional image and a 2D building outline map. Proceedings of the Twenty-Third IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2010.5540191"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"David, P., and Ho, S. (2011, January 25\u201330). Orientation descriptors for localization in urban environments. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2011.6094556"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1","article-title":"Global 6DOF Pose Estimation from Untextured 2D City Models","volume":"25","author":"Arth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baatz, G., Saurer, O., and K\u00f6ser, K. (2012, January 13\u201315). Leveraging Topographic Maps for Image to Terrain Alignment. Proceedings of the 2012 Second International Conference on 3D Imaging, Modeling, Processing, Visualization and Transmission (3DIMPVT), Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DIMPVT.2012.33"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taneja, A., Ballan, L., and Pollefeys, M. (2012, January 13\u201315). Registration of spherical panoramic images with cadastral 3d models. Proceedings of the 2012 Second International Conference on 3D Imaging, Modeling, Processing, Visualization and Transmission (3DIMPVT), Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DIMPVT.2012.45"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Middelberg, S., Sattler, T., and Untzelmann, O. (2014, January 6\u201312). Scalable 6-dof localization on mobile devices. Proceedings of the 13th European Conference on Computer Vision, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10605-2_18"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oskiper, T., Samarasekera, S., and Kumar, R. (2012, January 5\u20138). Multi-sensor navigation algorithm using monocular camera, IMU and GPS for large scale augmented reality. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR2012), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2012.6402541"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5391\/IJFIS.2013.13.1.1","article-title":"Landmark initialization for unscented kalman filter sensor fusion in monocular camera localization","volume":"13","author":"Hartmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Fuzzy Logic Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1561\/1100000049","article-title":"A survey of augmented reality","volume":"8","author":"Billinghurst","year":"2015","journal-title":"Found. Trends Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kendall, A., Grimes, M., and Cipolla, R. (2015, January 7\u201313). Posenet: A convolutional network for real-time 6-dof camera relocalization. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Shenzhen, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2015.336"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rambach, J., Tewari, A., Pagani, A., and Stricker, A. (2016, January 19\u201321). Learning to Fuse: A Deep Learning Approach to Visual-Inertial Camera Pose Estimation. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR2016), Merida, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2016.19"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Livingston, M.A., Rosenblum, L.J., Brown, D.G., Schmidt, G.S., and Julier, S.J. (2011). Military applications of augmented reality. Handbook of Augmented Reality, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-0064-6_31"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argenta, C., Murphy, A., Hinton, J., Cook, J., Sherrill, T., and Snarski, S. (2010). Graphical User Interface Concepts for Tactical Augmented Reality. Proc. SPIE, 7688.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.849462"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tatzgern, M., Kalkofen, D., Grasset, R., and Schmalstieg, D. (2014). Hedgehog Labeling: View Management Techniques for External Labels in 3D Space. Virtual Real.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2014.6802046"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grasset, R., Langlotz, T., and Kalkofen, D. (2012, January 5\u20138). Image-driven view management for augmented reality browsers. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Symposium on ISMAR, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR.2012.6402555"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Karlsson, M. (2015). Challenges of Designing Augmented Reality for Military Use, Karlstad University."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Livingston, M.A., Swan, J., Gabbard, J., Hollerer, T.H., Hix, D., Julier, S.J., Baillot, Y., and Brown, D. (2003, January 7\u201310). Resolving multiple occluded layers in augmented reality. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR2003), Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-010-0179-1","article-title":"User interface design for military AR applications","volume":"15","author":"Livingston","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2010.11.005","article-title":"Multi-perspective compact explosion diagrams","volume":"35","author":"Tatzgern","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tatzgern, M., Kalkofen, D., and Schmalstieg, D. (2013). Dynamic compact visualizations for augmented reality. IEEE Virtual Real., 3\u20136.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2013.6549347"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2010.11.005","article-title":"Compact explosion diagrams","volume":"35","author":"Tatzgern","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tatzgern, M., Orso, V., and Kalkofen, D. (2016, January 19\u201323). Adaptive information density for augmented reality displays. Proceedings of the IEEE VR 2016 Conference, Greenville, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2016.7504691"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Furmanski, C., Azuma, R., and Daily, M. (October, January 30). Augmented-reality visualizations guided by cognition: Perceptual heuristics for combining visible and obscured information. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR2002), Darmstadt, Germany."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, R., Jingjing, M., and Junsong, Y. (2011, January 13\u201316). Depth camera based hand gesture recognition and its applications in Human-Computer-Interaction. Proceedings of the 2011 8th International Conference Information, Communication Signal Process, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICS.2011.6173545"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulshreshth, A., Zorn, C., and Laviola, J.J. (2013, January 16\u201317). Poster: Real-time markerless kinect based finger tracking and hand gesture recognition for HCI. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DUI.2013.6550241"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zocco, A., Zocco, M., Greco, A., and Livatino, S. (September, January 31). Touchless Interaction for Command and Control in Military Operations. Proceedings of the International Conference on Augmented and Virtual Reality AVR 2015: Augmented and Virtual Reality, Lecce, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-22888-4_32"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Visiongain (2016). Military Augmented Reality (MAR) Technologies Market Report 2016\u20132026, Business Intelligence Company."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/2\/46\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:53:20Z","timestamp":1760194400000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/2\/46"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi7020046"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi7020046","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]]}}}