{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T17:15:28Z","timestamp":1771521328820,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,14]],"date-time":"2018-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1520985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), crime mapping has become an effective approach for investigating the spatial pattern of crime in a defined area. Understanding the relationship between crime and its surrounding environment reveals possible strategies for reducing crime in a neighborhood. The relationship between vegetation density and crime has long been under debate. The convenience of a road network is another important factor that can influence a criminal\u2019s selection of locations. This research is conducted to investigate the correlations between tree coverage and property crime, and road density and property crime in the City of Vancouver. High spatial resolution airborne LiDAR data and road network data collected in 2013 were used to extract tree covered areas for cross-sectional analysis. The independent variables were inserted into Ordinary Least-Squares (OLS) regression, Spatial Lag regression, and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) models to examine their relationships to property crime rates. The results of the cross-sectional analysis provide statistical evidence that there are negative correlations between property crime rates and both tree coverage and road density, with the stronger correlations occurring around Downtown Vancouver.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7030101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,15]],"date-time":"2018-03-15T05:06:43Z","timestamp":1521090403000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Investigating the Influences of Tree Coverage and Road Density on Property Crime"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6799-0286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chengming","family":"Ye","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Exploration and Information Technology of Ministry of Education, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Mobile Sensing and Geodata Science Lab, Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yifei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mobile Sensing and Geodata Science Lab, Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7899-0049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mobile Sensing and Geodata Science Lab, Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"70","article-title":"Assessment of spatial distribution of rural crime mapping in India: A GIS perspective","volume":"2","author":"Thangavelu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Remote Sens. GIS"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"36","article-title":"GIS for crime analysis: Geography for predictive models","volume":"15","author":"Ferreira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electron. J. Inf. Syst. Eval."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Brantingham, P.J., and Brantingham, P.L. (1981). Environmental Criminology, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"328","article-title":"Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED): A review and modern bibliography","volume":"23","author":"Cozens","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prop. Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weisburd, D.L., Groff, E.R., and Yang, S.M. (2012). The Criminology of Place: Street Segments and Our Understanding of the Crime Problem, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195369083.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Crowe, T.D. (2000). Crime Prevention through Environmental Design: Applications of Architectural Design and Space Management Concepts, Butterworth-Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s12061-011-9060-1","article-title":"Bayesian spatial random effect modeling for analyzing burglary risks controlling for offender, socioeconomic, and unknown risk factors","volume":"5","author":"Law","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Spat. Anal. Policy"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Law, J. (2012, January 5\u20137). Health and the environment: A geographical study of drugs at different school neighbourhoods. Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Science and Development (ICESD 2012), Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1080\/15614263.2014.972618","article-title":"Predictive crime mapping","volume":"16","author":"Fitterer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Police Pract. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-0064.2006.00159.x","article-title":"A spatial analysis of crime in Vancouver, British Columbia: A synthesis of social disorganization and routine activity theory","volume":"50","author":"Andresen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2012.03.010","article-title":"The relationship between tree canopy and crime rates across an urban-rural gradient in the greater Baltimore region","volume":"106","author":"Troy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2012.08.006","article-title":"Does vegetation encourage or suppress urban crime? Evidence from Philadelphia, PA","volume":"108","author":"Wolfe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Eckerson, A.W. (2013). Understanding the Relationship between Tree Canopy and Crime in Minneapolis, Minnesota Using Geographically Weighted Regression, Saint Mary\u2019s University of Minnesota Central Services Press. Papers in Resource Analysis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2014.08.016","article-title":"Using remote sensing to assess the relationship between crime and the urban layout","volume":"55","author":"Patino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaw, C.R., and McKay, H.D. (1942). Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas, University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/1334446"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1080\/07418820300095451","article-title":"Coercive mobility and crime: A preliminary examination of concentrated incarceration and social disorganization","volume":"20","author":"Clear","year":"2003","journal-title":"Justice Q."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8306.00298","article-title":"Where the jobs are: Employment access and crime patterns in Cleveland","volume":"92","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, D., Weeks, J.V., and Kaiser, J.V. (2004). Remote sensing and spatial statistics as tools in crime analysis. Geogr. Inf. Syst. Crime Anal., 270\u2013292.","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-59140-453-8.ch016"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Riggs, M. (2018, March 14). Street Lights and Crime: A Seemingly Endless Debate. Available online: http:\/\/www.citylab.com\/housing\/2014\/02\/street-lights-and-crime-seemingly-endless-debate\/8359\/."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"343","article-title":"Environment and Crime in the Inner City","volume":"33","author":"Kuo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1136\/injuryprev-2012-040439","article-title":"Greening vacant lots to reduce violent crime: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"19","author":"Garvin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inj. Prev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916510383238","article-title":"The effect of trees on crime in Portland, Oregon","volume":"44","author":"Donovan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"115","article-title":"The influence of street networks on the patterning of property offenses","volume":"2","author":"Beavon","year":"1994","journal-title":"Crime Prev. Stud."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.A1700149","article-title":"Experimental approach for identifying building surface materials based on hyperspectral remote sensing imagery","volume":"18","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2017.1312025","article-title":"Derivation of the characteristics of the Surface Urban Heat Island in the Greater Toronto area using thermal infrared remote sensing","volume":"8","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838015576412","article-title":"Green space, violence, and crime: A systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Bogar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abuse"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.21273\/HORTTECH.19.2.291","article-title":"The impact of community gardens on numbers of property crimes in Urban Houston","volume":"19","author":"Gorham","year":"2009","journal-title":"HortTechnology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, Y. (2015). How Do Vegetation Density and Transportation Network Density Affect Crime across an Urban Central-Peripheral Gradient: A Case Study in Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Waterloo].","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5070118"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, X. (2011). Integrating remote sensing and GIS for environmental justice research. Urban Remote Sensing: Monitoring, Synthesis and Modeling in the Urban Environment, Wiley-Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470979563"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/0735648X.1999.9721097","article-title":"Routine activities and motor vehicle theft: A crime specific approach","volume":"22","author":"Copes","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Crime Justice"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murakami, M., Higuchi, K., and Shibayama, A. (2004). Relationship between convenience store robberies and road environment. Recent Advances in Design and Decision Support Systems in Architecture and Urban Planning, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-2409-6_22"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2013.08.010","article-title":"Planning safer suburbs: Do changes in the built environment influence residents\u2019 perceptions of crime risk?","volume":"97","author":"Foster","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Statistics Canada (2018, March 14). Census Subdivision of Vancouver, CY\u2014British Columbia, 2011 Census Data."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Perreault, S. (2018, March 14). Police-Reported Crime Statistics in Canada, 2012, Available online: http:\/\/www.statcan.gc.ca\/pub\/85-002-x\/2013001\/article\/11854-eng.htm."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Boyce, J., Cotter, A., and Perreault, S. (2018, March 14). Police-Reported Crime Statistics in Canada, 2013, Available online: http:\/\/www.statcan.gc.ca\/pub\/85-002-x\/2014001\/article\/14040-eng.htm."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Vancouver Police Department (VPD) (2018, March 14). VPD Launch New GeoDash Crime Map, Available online: http:\/\/mediareleases.vpd.ca\/2015\/12\/08\/vpd-launch-new-geodash-crime-map\/."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Vancouver Police Department (VPD) (2018, March 14). Data Set Description: Legal Disclaimer from Vancouver Police Department. Available online: http:\/\/data.vancouver.ca\/datacatalogue\/crime-data.htm."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"309","article-title":"Exploring spatial data with GeoDaTM: A workbook","volume":"51","author":"Anselin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Urbana"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2014.10.015","article-title":"Spatial analysis of highway incident durations in the context of Hurricane Sandy","volume":"74","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"169","article-title":"Evaluating spatial model accuracy in mass real estate appraisal: A comparison of geographically weighted regression and the spatial lag model","volume":"16","author":"Bidanset","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cityscape"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"ESRI (2018, March 14). Interpreting GWR Results. Available online: http:\/\/desktop.arcgis.com\/en\/arcmap\/latest\/tools\/spatial-statistics-toolbox\/interpreting-gwr-results.htm."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2695","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.2129","article-title":"Geographically weighted Poisson regression for disease association mapping","volume":"24","author":"Nakaya","year":"2005","journal-title":"Stat. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2015.05.012","article-title":"Crime concentrations and similarities in spatial crime patterns in a Brazilian context","volume":"62","author":"Melo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/3\/101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:56:59Z","timestamp":1760194619000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/3\/101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,14]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi7030101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi7030101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,14]]}}}