{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T19:21:07Z","timestamp":1774725667986,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,17]],"date-time":"2018-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1523923200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3D building fa\u00e7ade reconstruction has become a very popular topic in various applications related to restoration and preservation of architectural structures as well as urban planning. This paper deals with the reconstruction of realistic 3D models of buildings fa\u00e7ades, in the urban environment for cultural heritage. We present an approach that enables the relation of stereoscopic images with tacheometry data. The proposed multimodal fusing scheme results in an accurate 3D realistic fa\u00e7ade reconstruction and provides a fast and low cost solution. In the first stage of the proposed approach a 2D skeleton of the building is extracted from the viewed scene using Active Contour and Hough line extraction. The next stage of our method utilizes depth information, extracted from a stereoscopic layout, to infer the structural details of inner fa\u00e7ade structures, such as windows or doors. In the final stage, the structural information extracted from the image data is integrated with georeferenced point datasets. The final output of our method is a georeferenced 3D model of the structure\u2019s fa\u00e7ade, which can be further refined with the use of image-driven texture information.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7040151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,18]],"date-time":"2018-04-18T03:51:13Z","timestamp":1524023473000},"page":"151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Fusing Georeferenced and Stereoscopic Image Data for 3D Building Fa\u00e7ade Reconstruction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3867-7119","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Bacharidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 731 00 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Froso","family":"Sarri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 731 00 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vasilis","family":"Paravolidakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 731 00 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lemonia","family":"Ragia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architectural Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 731 00 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michalis","family":"Zervakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 731 00 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4525","DOI":"10.3390\/s90604525","article-title":"Building fa\u00e7ade reconstruction by fusing terrestrial laser points and images","volume":"9","author":"Pu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\u2019arof, I., Zubaidah Bahari, S., Zulkiflee Abd, L., Aishah Sulaiman, N., and Manan Samad, A. (December, January 29). Image based modeling and documentation of Malaysian historical monuments using Digital Close-Range Photogrammetry (DCRP). Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Control System Computing and Engineering (ICCSCE), Mindeb, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSCE.2013.6720002"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1179\/1743131X14Y.0000000077","article-title":"Close-range photogrammetry applied to the documentation of cultural heritage using telescopic and wide-angle lenses","volume":"62","author":"Reinoso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Imaging Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.3923\/itj.2009.202.207","article-title":"Advantage of Digital Close Range Photogrammetry in Drawing of Muqarnas in Architecture","volume":"8","author":"Yakar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inf. Technol. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pfeifer, N., and Briese, C. (2007, January 25\u201327). Laser Scanning-Principles and Applications. Proceedings of the GeoSiberia 2007-International Exhibition and Scientific Congress, Novosibirsk, Russian.","DOI":"10.3997\/2214-4609.201403279"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.09.006","article-title":"An update on automatic 3D building reconstruction","volume":"65","author":"Haala","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"65","article-title":"Automatic Segmentation of Building Fa\u00e7ades Using Terrestrial Laser Data","volume":"XXXVI\u20133\/W52","author":"Boulaassal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"25","article-title":"Automatic extraction of building features from terrestrial laser scanning. International Archives of Photogrammetry","volume":"36","author":"Pu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2003.1242380","article-title":"New methods for digital modelling of historic sites","volume":"23","author":"Allen","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Brizzi, M., Court, S., d\u2019Andrea, A., Lastra, A., and Sepio, D. (2017, June 16). 3D Laser Scanning as a Tool for Conservation: The Experiences of the Herculaneum Conservation Project. Available online: http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.136.9479."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Abmayr, T., Hartl, F., Reinkoster, M., and Frohlich, C. (2005, January 22\u201324). Terrestrial laser scanning-applications in cultural heritage conservation and civil engineering. Proceedings of the ISPRS Working Group, Mestre-Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2010.06.007","article-title":"Automatic reconstruction of as-built building information models from laser-scanned point clouds: A review of related techniques","volume":"19","author":"Tang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"12","article-title":"Semi-Automatic Registration of Laser scanner Data","volume":"34","author":"Dijkman","year":"2002","journal-title":"IAPRS"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pu, S. (2010). Knowledge Based Building Fa\u00e7ade Reconstruction from Laser Point Clouds and Images. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Twente].","DOI":"10.54419\/6tzrzg"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Becker, S., and Haala, N. (2007, January 12\u201314). Combined feature extraction for fa\u00e7ade reconstruction. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning, Espoo, Finland."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"78","article-title":"Registration of terrestrial laser scanning data using planar patches and image data","volume":"36","author":"Dold","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kersten, T.P., Mechelke, K., and Maziull, L. (2015, January 25\u201327). 3D Model of Al Zubarah Fortress in Qatar\u2014Terrestrial Laser Scanning vs. Dense Image Matching. Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop 3D-ARCH, 3D Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization of Complex Architectures, Avila, Spain."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Chun Lee, S., and Ram, N. (July, January 27). Extraction and integration of window in a 3D building model from ground view images. Proceedings of the CVPR 2004 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Pu, S., and Vosselman, G. (2009). Refining building fa\u00e7ade models with images. ISPRS Workshop, CMRT09-City Models, Roads and Traffic, ISPRS."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"187","article-title":"Building reconstruction from images and laser scanning","volume":"6","author":"Brenner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S1296-2074(01)01108-6","article-title":"3D digitizing of cultural heritage","volume":"2","author":"Pieraccini","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cult. Heritage"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3061104","article-title":"Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning","volume":"3","author":"Remondino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2007.06.003","article-title":"Documentation of cultural heritage using digital photogrammetry and laser scanning","volume":"8","author":"Yastikli","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cult. Heritage"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"330","article-title":"Fully automatic registration of laser scanner point clouds","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Akca","year":"2003","journal-title":"Optical 3D Measurement Techniques VI"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"B\u00f6hm, J., and Becker, S. (2007, January 9\u201313). Automatic marker-free registration of terrestrial laser scans using reflectance. Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Optical 3D Measurement Techniques, Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9453(2009)135:4(173)","article-title":"From the conventional total station to the prospective image assisted photogrammetric scanning total station: Comprehensive review","volume":"135","author":"Scherer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Dellaert, F., Seitz, S., Thorpe, C., and Thrun, S. (2000, January 15). Structure from Motion without Correspondence. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., Robson, S., Kyle, S., and Boehm, J. (2013). Close-Range Photogrammetry and 3D Imaging, Walter de Gruyter. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110302783"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"126","article-title":"3D Acquisition, Modelling and Visualization of north German Castles by Digital Architectural Photogrammetry","volume":"35","author":"Kersten","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"339","article-title":"Virtual Reality Model of the Northern Sluice of the Ancient Dam in Marib\/Yemen by Combination of Digital Photogrammetry and Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Archaeological Applications","volume":"5","author":"Kersten","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Arch. Comput."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paravolidakis, V., Bacharidis, K., Sarri, F., Ragia, L., and Zervakis, M. (2016, January 4\u20136). Reduction of Building Fa\u00e7ade Model Complexity using Computer Vision. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Imaging Systems and Techniques (IST), Chania, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IST.2016.7738269"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Wang, C.P., Wilson, K., and Snavely, N. (July, January 29). Accurate georegistration of point clouds using geographic data. Proceedings of the International Conference on 3D Vision, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1109\/34.888718","article-title":"A flexible new technique for camera calibration","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartley, R., and Zisserman, A. (2003). Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511811685"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2007.09.014","article-title":"Speeded-up robust features (SURF)","volume":"110","author":"Bay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1109\/34.1000236","article-title":"Mean shift: A robust approach toward feature space analysis","volume":"24","author":"Comaniciu","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Canny, J. (1986). A computational approach to edge detection. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell., 679\u2013698.","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1986.4767851"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00133570","article-title":"Snakes: Active contour models","volume":"1","author":"Kass","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1145\/361237.361242","article-title":"Use of the Hough Transformation to Detect Lines and Curves in Pictures","volume":"15","author":"Duda","year":"1972","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1017\/S0962492900001331","article-title":"Triangulations and meshes in computational geometry","volume":"9","author":"Edelsbrunner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Numer."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ragia, L., Sarri, F., and Mania, K. (2015, January 28\u201330). 3D Reconstruction and Visualization of Alternatives for Restoration of Historic Buildings\u2014A NewApproach. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Geographical Information Systems, Theory, Applications and Management, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.5220\/0005376700940102"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2017, March 05). Hellenic Geodetic Reference System 1987 or Greek Geodetic Reference System. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hellenic_Geodetic_Reference_System_1987."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Bouquet, J.Y. (2016, November 25). Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab. Available online: http:\/\/www.vision.caltech.edu\/bouguetj\/calib_doc\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1121","article-title":"Quality Analysis on 3D Building Models Reconstructed from UAV Imagery. International Archives of the Photogrammetry","volume":"41","author":"Karpina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-5-W4-263-2015","article-title":"Modeling and Accuracy Assessment for 3D-VIRTUAL Reconstruction in Cultural Heritage Using Low-Cost Photogrammetry: Surveying of the \u201csanta MAR\u00cdA Azogue\u201d Church's Front","volume":"40","author":"Prieto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W3-405-2017","article-title":"First experiences with the Trimble SX10 scanning total station for building fa\u00e7ade survey","volume":"42","author":"Lachat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/4\/151\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:00:57Z","timestamp":1760194857000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/4\/151"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,17]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi7040151"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi7040151","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,17]]}}}