{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T02:41:41Z","timestamp":1774924901582,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,22]],"date-time":"2018-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1534896000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3D city models have become crucial for better city management, and can be used for various purposes such as disaster management, navigation, solar potential computation and planning simulations. 3D city models are not only visual models, and they can also be used for thematic queries and analyzes with the help of semantic data. The models can be produced using different data sources and methods. In this study, vector basemaps and large-format aerial images, which are regularly produced in accordance with the large scale map production regulations in Turkey, have been used to develop a workflow for semi-automatic 3D city model generation. The aim of this study is to propose a procedure for the production of 3D city models from existing aerial photogrammetric datasets without additional data acquisition efforts and\/or costly manual editing. To prove the methodology, a 3D city model has been generated with semi-automatic methods at LoD2 (Level of Detail 2) of CityGML (City Geographic Markup Language) using the data of the study area over Cesme Town of Izmir Province, Turkey. The generated model is automatically textured and additional developments have been performed for 3D visualization of the model on the web. The problems encountered throughout the study and approaches to solve them are presented here. Consequently, the approach introduced in this study yields promising results for low-cost 3D city model production with the data at hand.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7090339","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,23]],"date-time":"2018-08-23T03:00:46Z","timestamp":1534993246000},"page":"339","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Semi-Automatic 3D City Model Generation from Large-Format Aerial Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3618-3414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehmet","family":"Buyukdemircioglu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara 06800, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2775-7914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sultan","family":"Kocaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara 06800, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2660-0106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umit","family":"Isikdag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul 34427, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations (2014). World Urbanization Prospects Highlights, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Stadler, A., and Kolbe, T.H. (2007, January 13\u201315). Spatio-semantic coherence in the integration of 3D city models. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Spatial Data Quality, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"D\u00f6llner, J., Kolbe, T.H., Liecke, F., Sgouros, T., and Teichmann, K. (2006, January 15\u201317). The virtual 3D city model of Berlin-managing, integrating, and communicating complex urban information. Proceedings of the 25th Urban Data Management Symposium Udms, Aalborg, Denmark."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolbe, T., Gr\u00f6ger, G., and Pl\u00fcmer, L. (2005). CityGML: Interoperable access to 3D city models. Geo-\u0130nformation for Disaster Management, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-27468-5_63"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Kada, M. (2009). The 3D berlin project. Photogrammetric Week\u201909, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-III-4-139-2016","article-title":"First steps towards an integrated CityGML-based 3d model of Vienna","volume":"III-4","author":"Agugiaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ozerbil, T., Gokten, E., Onder, M., Selcuk, O., Sarilar, N.C., Tekgul, A., Yilmaz, E., and Tutuneken, A. (2014, January 14\u201317). Konya buyuksehir belediyesi egik (oblique) goruntu alimi, 3 boyutlu kent modeli ve 3 boyutlu kent rehberi projesi. Proceedings of the V. Uzaktan Alg\u0131lama ve Cografi Bilgi Sistemleri Sempozyumu (UZAL-CBS 2014), Istanbul, Turkey. Available online: http:\/\/uzalcbs.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/2014_013.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"47","article-title":"3D building reconstruction from lidar based on a cell decomposition approach","volume":"38","author":"Kada","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.09.006","article-title":"An update on automatic 3D building reconstruction","volume":"65","author":"Haala","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haala, N., Rothermel, M., and Cavegn, S. (April, January 30). Extracting 3D urban models from oblique aerial images. Proceedings of the 2015 Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event (JURSE), Lausanne, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/JURSE.2015.7120479"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kocaman, S., Zhang, L., Gruen, A., and Poli, D. (2006, January 14\u201316). 3D city modeling from high-resolution satellite images. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop Topographic Mapping from Space (withSpecial Emphasis on Small Satellites), Ankara, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kraus, T., Lehner, M., and Reinartz, P. (June, January 29). Modeling of urban areas form high resolution stereo satellite images. Proceedings of the ISPRS Hannover Workshop 2007 High-Resolution Earth Imaging for Geospatial Information, Hannover, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/URS.2007.371777"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Flamanc, D., Maillet, G., and Jibrini, H. (2003, January 17\u201319). 3D city models: An operational approach using aerial images and cadastral maps. Proceedings of the Photogrammetric Image Analysis, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"104","article-title":"Design and implementation of an algorithm for automatic 3D reconstruction of building models using genetic algorithm","volume":"19","author":"Kabolizade","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsbe.2014.06.004","article-title":"Digital surface model based on aerial image stereo pairs for 3D building","volume":"3","author":"Alobeid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00010-6","article-title":"Extraction of buildings and trees in urban environments","volume":"54","author":"Haala","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2003.09.006","article-title":"Reconstruction of 3D building models from aerial images and maps","volume":"58","author":"Suveg","year":"2004","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Open Geospatial Consortium (2018, August 21). City Geography Markup Language (Citygml) Encoding Standard Version 2.0.0. Available online: http:\/\/www.opengis.net\/spec\/citygml\/2.0."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buyuksalih, I., Isikdag, U., and Zlatanova, S. (2013, January 27\u201329). Exploring the processes of generating lod (0-2) citygml models in greater municipality of Istanbul. Proceedings of the 8th 3DGeoInfo Conference & WG II\/2 Workshop, Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-2-W2-19-2013"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolbe, T.H. (2009). Representing and exchanging 3D city models with citygml. 3D Geo-\u0130nformation Sciences, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-87395-2_2"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"485","article-title":"Level of detail in 3D building reconstruction from lidar data","volume":"37","author":"Arefi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.04.004","article-title":"Citygml\u2014\u0130nteroperable semantic 3D city models","volume":"71","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7323","DOI":"10.3390\/s8117323","article-title":"A comprehensive automated 3D approach for building extraction, reconstruction, and regularization from airborne laser scanning point clouds","volume":"8","author":"Dorninger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"87","article-title":"Model-driven and data-driven approaches using lidar data: Analysis and comparison","volume":"36","author":"Landes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.02.004","article-title":"A generative statistical approach to automatic 3D building roof reconstruction from laser scanning data","volume":"79","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"105","article-title":"Automatic building reconstruction from cadastral maps and aerial images","volume":"36","author":"Taillandier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"321","article-title":"Extracting semantic building models from aerial stereo images and conversion to CityGML","volume":"41","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"209","article-title":"Photogrammetry and 3D city modeling","volume":"90","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Digit. Archit."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-I-3-257-2012","article-title":"Automatic roof outlines reconstruction from photogrammetric DSM","volume":"I-3","author":"Nex","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Fr\u00fch, C., Sammon, R., and Zakhor, A. (2004, January 6\u20139). Automated texture mapping of 3D city models with oblique aerial imagery. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on 3D Data Processing, Visualization and Transmission, 3DPVT 2004, Thessaloniki, Greece."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"52","article-title":"Constructing 3D city models by merging aerial and ground views","volume":"23","author":"Zakhor","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Kada, M., Klinec, D., and Haala, N. (2005, January 7\u201311). Fa\u00e7ade texturing for rendering 3D city models. Proceedings of the ASPRS 2005 Annual Conference, Baltimore, MD, UDA."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Novel, C., Keriven, R., Poux, E., and Graindorge, P. (,  2015). Comparing aerial photogrammetry and 3D laser scanning methods for creating 3D models of complex objects. Proceedings of the Capturing Reality Forum, Bentley Systems, Salzburg, Austria."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Vexcel \u0130maging Ultracam Falcon. Available online: http:\/\/www.vexcel-imaging.com\/ultracam-falcon\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Agisoft Photoscan Pro. Available online: http:\/\/www.agisoft.com\/features\/professional-edition\/."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Bentley Microstation. Available online: https:\/\/www.bentley.com\/en\/products\/product-line\/modeling-and-visualization-software\/microstation."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Safe Software Fme. Available online: https:\/\/www.safe.com\/."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Virtualcity Systems Building Reconstruction. Available online: http:\/\/www.virtualcitysystems.de\/en\/products\/buildingreconstruction."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Uvm Systems Gmbh. Available online: http:\/\/www.uvmsystems.com\/index.php\/en\/software\/soft-city."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2018, July 31). Intergraph Corporation. Available online: http:\/\/www.intergraph.com\/."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/9\/339\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:20:20Z","timestamp":1760196020000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/7\/9\/339"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,22]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi7090339"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi7090339","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,22]]}}}